As I stepped out of my time-travel machine, I could hear the aroma of meat and the
chattering of philosophers. The stage seems set to seek my goal of buying information
on the emergence of Christianity. I seem to have entered the right place as the
Roman philosophy fest, which
is held after Aristotle's death (322 B.C.), which consists of various philosophers trying to
sell their ideas to the curious minds This period is crucial as the Romans invaded
the Greek territory, people started valuing a philosophy that addressed the
problems of everyday living like good life and what's worth believing in, than what is
the nature of physical reality. (Greek philosophy). The stalls in this fest included
skeptics, cynics, epicureans, stoics and then eventually, Christians. While
skepticism and cynicism were irrelevant to human needs, as they questioned belief in anything and promoted retreat from society, respectively, starting
from epicureanism, they addressed the moral conduct of humans.
Epicureanism: Hedon & Co. – Favouring Simple Living
This stall comes from traditions originating with the Greeks, which was also found in
the Roman Empire as it was decorated with amphorae of wine and simple foods,
which seems to drawa relaxed crowd.
A calm and easygoing CEO, Greek philosopher Epicurus of Samos (341-270 B.C.), greeted
me and spoke,
“The end goal of life is happiness” as he poured me a glass of water “ This is
reflected through festivals, games, and the defecation of the emperor.”
Figure 1 Epicurus by Agostino Scilla, circa 1670–1680. From Epicurus, by A. Scilla, 1670–1680, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus.
“Humans have the power to live a life of free will”. He later explains that it is not because
of the soul but due to the nature of atoms and atomic activity, which allows them to
move freely.
As a materialist, someone who believes that physical matter is the fundamental reality of
everything, he believed that even the soul of a man is physical (O’Connor, 1993, p. 11).
As we know, atoms can never be destroyed; they are rearranged. This soul has the
functions of sensation and the activity function of passion. If we were to look at this
through the human cycle, in the death of an individual, their atoms would be
rearranged in the world, and the soul's atoms would move freely, which shows
there is no need to question life after death, as it does not exist. Justice was a
social contract and he discouraged political involvement.
The concept of reason and freedom exists as individual
expressions not connected to any universe. He emphasises :
“Death, the most terrifying of ills, is nothing to us, since so long as we exist,
death is not with us; but when death comes, then we do not exist." (Epicurus, n.d.)
Applying his materialistic views would liberate people from the fears of
gods and death and promote inner peace without divine intervention.
Even if gods existed, they were Olympian gods, never involved in human
affairs. Epicurus states:
"The man who is serene and free from fear of the gods is neither troubled by death nor by
any other thing that brings anxiety" (Epicurus, as cited in Diogenes Laërtius, 1925).
The Roman poet Lucretius, his disciple, supported this stance in "De Rerum Natura":
"Therefore, death to us is nothing, nor concerns us in the least, since nature of mind is
mortal evermore"
(Lucretius, 1916).
He criticized religious superstitions, showing how they led to cruelty and suffering.
“What are the different programs you provide?” I ask.
“Program tranquility is our greatest delight,” Epicurus states. The followers
lead simple lives, enjoying bread and water because luxury food,
which gives intense pleasure, can lead to inconveniences. Desires were
classified: Natural and necessary (essential for happiness and survival),
natural but not necessary (luxuries), and vain and empty (power, wealth, and
fame leading to disturbances) (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2025).
Hedonism, therefore, meant seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, where pleasure results
from satisfying basic needs. Power and pain should be avoided as they make others envious
and, therefore, also enemies. The highest form of social pleasure comes from friendship
rather than relationships.
The goal is to obtain long-term happiness by avoiding extremes. The greatest pleasure
is through a balanced life by reason and choice. This includes living simply, rationally,
and moderately. “How does this relate to Christianity?” I snickered.
Epicurus explained that Epicureanism and Christianity are different. The latter focuses
on redemption from sin through Jesus's resurrection, emphasizing the immortal soul,
divine providence and life after death. (Bell, 2017). Christianity values obedience
to God's will and virtues like humility and self-sacrifice (Bell, 2017).
However, Epicureanism influenced Christianity by shaping cultural and
philosophical environments.
Both emphasize love and community, though differently—Epicureanism values friendship,
whereas Christianity seeks divine love (Wiker, 1999). They share behavioral
values like compassion, forgiveness, generosity, and humility (Bell, 2017).
The pursuit of a tranquil mind which is free from fear influenced Christian practices.
Modern Christianity shifted towards self-fulfillment and worldly peace,
resembling an Epicurean outlook. Liberal Christianity prioritizes personal
well-being over strict doctrinal suffering or divine judgment, adopting a balance
between worldly and spiritual pleasures (Wiker, 1999).
My curiosity peaked, I was propelled to ask the next question:
“How did this influence psychology?”
Figure 2. Descriptive depiction of Epicurus among other philosophers. From School of Athens, by Raphael, 1509–1511, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
“Epicurean thinking also shaped humanistic perspectives in the Renaissance, giving
importance to empirical observation and human nature”. He continued his explanation
that in the 20th century, thinkers like Ayn Rand and the Positivists. Were influenced
by this thought Hanrott, 2019).
Moderation, enjoyment, tranquility, friendship, and freedom from fear, challenging
the notion of self-indulgent hedonism, were important aspects of
epicureanism (Hanrott, 2019).
It promoted reducing anxiety and focusing on well-being, aligning with mindfulness,
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and minimalism. Encouraging contentment
in relationships, moderate desires, and avoiding unnecessary fears, it laid a
foundation for happiness research, applied in positive psychology and stress management
(Clarke, 2024).
It influenced psychological theories like Freud's pleasure principle—the idea
that human behavior is driven by pleasure-seeking and pain avoidance,
echoing Epicurean hedonism (Burton, 2024).
Moving to the next stall, I had a self-reflection of the information I gained.
The thought only lasted for 600 years and perished after the CEO’s death.
His view gave me insights into how bodily functions were central to understanding life.
It sought self-seeking individual behavior.
Stoicism: Zeno Corp. – Endure to Excel
This stall seems to have serious-looking individuals in togas. They seemed to
be associated with the pragmatic approach as their conversations were
about the law and order of the Romans.
Prominent people like Seneca (ca.4 B.C.–A.D 65), a philosopher;
Epictetus (ca.A.D. 55–135), slave; and Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121–180),
an emperor, accepted this philosophy. “As long as the state
ensured stability and basic provisions, stoicism seemed like an acceptable
option.”They spoke.
Figure 3 A bust of Zeno of Citium, considered the founder of Stoicism.
From Zeno of Citium, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium.
Zeno of Citium (ca. 335–263 B.C.), the CEO, taught at Stoa Poikile
(Painted Porch) in Athens, which gave the philosophy its name (Long, 1986).
He started speaking about the types of Matter---matter which is acted upon
and matter that acts. This ability of humans to act is because of a source
bound to the universe. He believed the world was ruled by divine planning;
therefore all events had a reason for occurring. Living in nature was the
ultimate virtue; there were no chances of accidents. He
stated:
“Fate is the endless chain of causation, whereby things are; the reason or formula
by which the world goes on” (Zeno of Citium, as cited in Stobaeus, Anthology, 2.75).
The good life he proposed includes everything that should be accepted as
part of the plan with indifference. Facing problems with courage is considered
admirable as the body might be chained, but not the will. A stoic person should always
be content and composed in life. He proudly said:
"Man conquers the world by conquering himself." (Zeno of Citium, n.d.)
By this, he explains that true mastery comes from self-control; through this,
we might not govern external events, but we can regulate our responses.
A person should attain mastery over personal emotions, desires, and impulses,
aligning with the idea of apatheia, which is genuine freedom.
There was a need to abdicate personal responsibilities; the individual
is reactive, not active.
Contrasting active and passive assumptions about the essential nature
of human existence recurs consistently throughout psychology's development.
More than material possessions, virtue was important, helping the
person lead a joyous life by being part of a more important plan,
even if the individual was not able to understand it. If the individual went
along with nature's plan, law, and order,they were virtuous; if they tried to
defy it, they were immoral.
“What's the essence of this enterprise?” I ask.
Figure 3. Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor.
From Marcus Aurelius, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius.
Marcus Aurelius quotes himself from his book Meditations:
“To live each day as though it is one’s last, never flustered, never apathetic,
never attitudinizing—here
is the perfection of character” (Staniforth, 1964, p.118).
Stoicism left the person as part of the environment and subject to
environmental determinants.
They never meant to solve the problem of how human will can be
free in a predetermined universe--a problem seen in Christianity, too.
If God is all-powerful and all-knowing, yet humans have free will,
what accounts for evil and sinners? When Rome began to
fall to corruption, environmental mismanagement, and barbarian
invasions, people sought a better explanation for the good life.
Christianity provided comfort and hope in tough times.
Curiosity propels me to ask, “How does it influence Christianity?”.
Zeno explains that Stoicism influenced Christian ethics, which included
virtue ethics, moral reasoning, and resilience. Early thinkers like St. Paul and
St. Augustine incorporated this into theology, including endurance, providence,
and moral life. The Apostle Paul adopted Stoic conceptions to convey Christ.
Stoic virtue—wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance—was incorporated
into Christian moral teachings by Thomas Aquinas. Christianity modified
Stoic self-sufficiency with divine grace. Amor fati (love of fate) was blended
with divine providence and redemptive suffering. St. Paul’s letters, especially Romans
and Philippians, echo Stoic endurance but frame suffering as having
a divine purpose (Cochran, 2022).
Stoic logos was interpreted as divine wisdom in John 1:1: “In the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God.”
Stoicism’s emotional detachment (apatheia) was replaced in Christianity
with love, compassion, and faith.
“How did it influence psychology?” I question.
He explains that Stoicism teaches distinguishing between what can and
cannot be controlled, aligning with the psychological concept of an
internal locus of control, which improves mental health. It
promotes resilience. Voluntary discomfort and reinterpretation of
hindrances strengthen self-confidence to confront problems. Imagining
worst-case scenarios fosters gratitude and preparation for adversity
(Psychologs Magazine News, 2024).
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) was influenced by Epictetus’s
principle of interpreting events that influence you. Reframing negative
thoughts and focusing on control leads to modern resilience training
in military and leadership programs. Martin Seligman’s positive psychology
views Stoicism as a blueprint for happiness and resilience.
Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy (finding meaning in suffering)
echoes Stoic endurance. Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy (REBT) was directly inspired by Epictetus.
Neoplatonism: One Enterprise – Beyond Material World
This last stall had a mystical aspect in the air, similar to Plato’s philosophy.
The best brand of products under this was individual immortality and
human compassion—a collaboration of two prominent aspects of philosophy
and religion: Platonic thought and Judaism. Stoicism led to a detachment
from life's emotions, emphasizing reason, which influenced Western
literature to lack emotional intensity. Greeks focused on self-reflection and
skepticism, while the Hebrews had intense faith and passionate devotion
to God, making their life more intense and engaging. This fusion could provide
instant progress in power, serving as a source of strength and inspiration. The Greeks
thought it was madness. (Brett, 1912–1921/1965, p. 171)
Figure 4. Plato's Academy mosaic – from the Villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii. From Platonic Academy, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy.
The first CEO was Philo (ca. 25 B.C.–A.D. 50), nicknamed the Jewish Plato.
He took the biblical account of the creation of man as the start for
his enterprise: “ The human soul was created by God and the body by Earth—
introducing the dualism between mind and body.” The body was perishable
and lowly, while the soul was an everlasting part of God, divine. He states:
"The mind is the guide of the soul, and the soul of the body"
(Philo of Alexandria, as cited in On t
he Creation)
The proposed life, therefore, can either move away from divine experiences
toward flesh or toward divinity. According to him, sensory experience
could not provide the needed understanding and communication with God.
Knowledge comes from God; to receive this, the soul must be purified
of all sensory distractions and attain divine illumination through intense inner experience.
Figure 5 . Illustration of Philo made in 1584 by the French portrait
artist André Thevet. From Philo, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo.
Here, psychology was something lived and experienced personally,
as well as a theoretical subject.
By observing others externally or reflecting on one's own experiences,
one could interpret psychology. Dismissing subjective experiences
like emotions would mean discarding fundamental insights into
understanding the human mind (soul). The key to this is staying open-minded.
The second CEO was Plotinus (ca. 205–270), an Egyptian who later spoke,
“Matter was formless potential to acquire a form, and nature was the
supreme soul.” In humans, the vital principle in the soul molds
individuals' progress to maturity, and reason is our
ability to use ideas, which provide the highest form of life to
become conscious. Emphasizing the spiritual world, he explains:
“He was in harmony with all the most serious men of his age.
To all of them, Christians and pagans
alike, the world of practical affairs seemed to offer no hope, and
only the Other World seemed worthy of
allegiance” (Russell, 1945, p. 284).
His hierarchy begins with God—the supreme and unknowable.
the second is spirit- image of God,part of every human soul,
bringing it closer to God. Third is the soul—the cause of all things that exist
in the physical world. From the top-down, God gave spirit, and
from spirit came the soul. From the bottom up, the soul created life
in the physical world by entering material existence, imitating the divine.
He believed sensory experiences, such as art, music, and
beauty, were reflections of the divine.
Figure 6. The reconstructed bust is believed to represent Plotinus.
From Neoplatonism, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism.
“So finally, what's your definition of the good life?” I ask.
Both CEOs replied, “The quiet acceptance of one's fate,
the avoidance of pain (influenced by Epicureanism), and the turning
away from the empirical world to enter the divine realm. The good life is
a journey of purification, where wisdom and moral discipline lead
the soul back to its divine origin.
It is about detachment from worldly distractions and cultivating
an inner connection with the transcendent truth.”
“How did it influence Christianity?” you further questioned.
They explained how Neoplatonism profoundly impacted
Christianity by presenting a single,transcendent God, perceiving
evil as a lack rather than an autonomous power, and emphasizing
the soul’s journey toward unity with the divine—harmonizing
with Christian notions of spiritual cleansing and salvation.
The concept of an eternal and perfect realm paralleled
Christian ideas of Heaven, and the belief that material existence
is an imperfect reflection of divine truth aligned with Christian
teachings on the fallen world.
Figure 7 . Depiction related to Christian mysticism. From Christian Mysticism, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mysticism.
It significantly influenced early Christian thinkers, particularly
St. Augustine, who integrated Neoplatonic
ideas into his theology. He adopted Plotinus's view that
evil is not a created force but rather a privation
of good and that God is immaterial and beyond human comprehension.
Neoplatonism also shaped Christian mysticism, monastic traditions,
and theological discussions on divine grace, sin, and the nature of the soul.
Origen applied Neoplatonic hierarchy to Christian thought,
explaining creation, angelic orders, and divine providence.
Later, thinkers such as Pseudo-Dionysius, St. Thomas Aquinas,
and Renaissance scholars like Marsilio Ficino continued incorporating
Neoplatonic principles into Christian philosophy,
influencing Catholic doctrine and mystical traditions.
“What is its contribution to psychology?” sparked my question.
Proudly, they spoke of how Neoplatonism contributed to
psychology through its focus on the soul,
consciousness, and personal transformation. It laid a foundation
for understanding human identity, self-awareness, and introspection.
This influenced the development of modern psychology,
particularly in areas related to depth psychology and existential psychology.
Carl Jung’s theory of archetypes reflects Neoplatonic thought,
echoing the soul’s journey toward self-actualization and unity
with a higher reality. Neoplatonic emphasis on personal transformation
influenced humanistic and transpersonal psychology, which explores the
integration of spirituality into psychological well-being.
Neoplatonic mysticism frequently aligns with concepts
in modern psychology, such as altered states of consciousness
and self-transcendence. Descartes' dualism, which dominated psychology
for centuries, was influenced by Neoplatonic ideas, shaping
debates on the mind-body problem. The notion of an unconscious
source of desires, central to Freud’s psychoanalysis, echoes Neoplatonic
ideas about the hidden forces of the psyche.
Moreover, Neoplatonic theories are applied in transpersonal
psychology to aid in spiritual awakening,
while existential psychology draws on these principles to explore
meaning, purpose, and self-realization—
paralleling Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy and Abraham Maslow’s
self-actualization framework.
Thus, Neoplatonism’s focus on inner contemplation, transcendence,
and moral purification not only shaped Christian theology but also laid the
groundwork for modern discussions on consciousness,
personal growth, and psychological well-being
Conclusion
As I leave the fest, I reflect on the shift of my human thoughts.
“Epicureans understood the importance of simple pleasures in life and
freedom from fears, Stoicism emphasised virtue and resilience, while
Neoplatonism's vision of divine transcendence helped develop and shape
Christian theology to what it was.”
Philosophy and faith were blended as Christianity took stoic endurance,
Epicurean community values and neoplatonic spirituality. These stalls
laid the groundwork for psychological theories which shaped the
ideas of mental well-being in the present. Epicurean views influenced
mindfulness and happiness research, stoic resilience influenced
CBT, and Neoplatonism aligns with modern self-actualization.
All of them reflect the humanities' timeless yearning for meaning,
self-control and better understanding of the soul.
“With these gems, my journey has shown me connections and
reaffirmed the relevance of philosophical traditions in shaping what we
are and what we will be.” Saying so, I step back into the time-travel pod,
ready to report my discoveries to the future world.
It was a random Sunday two years ago, when I went to church like I did
every Sunday and this time I actually listened to the priest talk without
falling asleep. He talked about this guy named Saul and how he converted
into St. Paul and played a major role in the propagation of Christianity. He also
talked about how St Paul who initially persecuted Christians started preaching
Christianity. Though the sermon was short it lingered in my mind,
who was St. Paul? Did he actually lay the foundations for Christians,
not Jesus? I needed to know more about this dude. I went to the
priest after church and poured out my questions. It was maybe b
ecause he noticed that I actually listened to the sermon this time
he actually made time for me. He brought us chairs, sat me down
and said that he would talk about the history and I was to make
sure to listen, Giving it my all. This is going be fun, I thought.
I was right! I’d never been more in love with history and church
at the same time. If you keep reading you will have a glimpse
of what I was told that Sunday.
He started off with Paul as a strong Christian missionary. He was a
Jew born in Tarsus, who at the start persecuted Christians but on his
way to Damascus to persecute more Christians had a vision and
started preaching the gospel. Mind-blowing right? After he
became a missionary, Paul travelled a lot establishing churches
and spreading the gospel. He viewed physical body as evil and
as something that sins. He differentiated Christianity from
Judaism as the Jews still waited for the Messiah to come the
Christians believed that Jesus was the Messiah. Jesus came
down to Earth to provide salvation to mankind and save them
from their sins so that they find their eternal home after their life on earth.
Clement of Alexandria and Origen were both early Christian
theologians and philosophers from the Alexandrian school, which
combined Christian principles with Greek philosophy, particularly
Platonism and Stoicism. Now let me tell you what he told me
about Clement of Alexandria!
I sat there, mesmerised about the fact that there was so much that
happened that brought Christianity to life, so lost in how there was so
much I didn’t care to know about that time flew by and it was 2
in the afternoon. We had to leave St. Paul and the others back in
history when we came back to the present, unfortunately we
had to leave to go home for lunch. But I couldn’t leave the story
at that could I? I went back home and before I could grab my
lunch I went online and browsed on The Early Leaders which is
when I found about these two teachers of Alexandria…
Clement of Alexandria and Origen were both early Christian
theologians and philosophers from the Alexandrian school,
which combined Christian principles with Greek philosophy,
particularly Platonism and Stoicism. Now let me tell you what I
read about Clement of Alexandria!
Clement of Alexandria
Clement argued that philosophy was a gift from God and
that reason was necessary to deepen one’s understanding of faith,
therefore emphasizing on empiricism. He believed the Bible should
not always be read literally but symbolically, revealing deeper
spiritual truths. He encouraged Christians to live a moderate and
virtuous life. Clement believed that the Bible contained hidden meanings
that required spiritual insight to understand. For example, he saw
Old Testament laws not just as legal codes but as moral and spiritual
principles applicable to Christian life. Clement argued that faith and reason
were not in conflict but complementary. He believed that Greek
philosophy was a kind of preparation for Christian truth, just as the
Law prepared the Jews for Christ.
Origen of Alexandria
was one of the most influential early Christian theologians, scholars,
and Church Fathers. He translated the Old Testament which was in
Hebrew into Greek and provided interpretations of the bible in Greek
understanding. He integrated Platonic and Stoic ideas into Christian theology,
shaping later Christian thought.
It was Origen and Clement who laud the foundations for the
‘Trinitarian Thought’. While Clement saw the Father as the source, with
the Son and Spirit emanating from Him, though he did not clearly
define their equality. Origen said that the Son was eternally begotten by the
Father, meaning there was never a time when the Son did not exist.
He believed the Son and Spirit were divine but below the Father in
hierarchy, this idea was later rejected by the Nicene Creed. Origen
often spoke of God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in his
biblical interpretations. Hence the Hebrew tradition of
Monotheism and the Greek tradition of polytheism was resolved
with the concept of trinity.
In Christianity a person’s journey in life was viewed as having
several stages. The soul is immortal and once it enters the worldly life,
lives it and after death detaches from the body to find unity with the
wisdom of God.
As time passed Christianity faced tension from both inside and out.
On the inside were pressures from the Christians or rather the Gnostics
who questioned the basic beliefs on Jesus. The persecutions continued
until the Edict of Milan was issued by the emperor Constantine in 313.
Due to this papal supremacy emerged and Christianity in Rome was
found to have similarities in dress and rituals with the pagans in Rome.
The bishop gained the title of ‘Pontifex Maximus’, a title which
was usually given to the pagan high priest.
With the issue of the Edict of Milan a lot of changes took place.
The church had the power to control the society as well as the
administration, this tore down the civil government which was
already present and powers were vested into the hands of the church.
I sat back on my chair and thought how easily power was brought
to the church in the name of religion. How it could manipulate
the people into doing so many other things, just in the name
of religion. Anyway let’s just keep reading…
Edict of Milan
Church Fathers
St. Jerome translated the Bible from Hebrew and Greek into Latin
, making it accessible to more people while also explaining
difficult passages. He encourages the Christians to live a life
of simplicity, his writings provide insight to the churches even today.
St. Jerome
St. Ambrose was not only a theologian and defender of the
church, but also a strong advocate for charity and social justice.
He believed that wealth should be used to help the needy and
that the Church had a duty to care for the poor. During a time
of crisis, he sold church gold and sacred vessels to ransom
captives and provide for the poor.
St. Ambrose
He famously said: “The Church has gold not to store, but to redeem the needy.”
“How nice!” I thought “an actual leader who put his power into good use”
. It was nice to read about people in power striving to do better for the people.
St. Anthony and St. Basil were also church fathers who were
defenders of the church. They worked towards the development
of monasticism and charity. While both were deeply committed
to the faith, their approaches were different. St. Anthony led a
solitary life in the desert to achieve perfection, while St. Basil
emphasized community-based monasticism and social service.
St. Anthony St. Basil
St. Anthony’s solitary life to gain perfection and to work on
himself made me think. Is this not related to what we learnt in psychology
class the other day when ma’am spoke on introspection? As I read further
I came across something called the ‘Council of Nicaea’.
Let me tell you what I gathered.
The First Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD, was a landmark
event in Christian history. Convened by Emperor Constantine,
to resolve major disputes in the church and to establish unity.
As a result of the Council of Nicaea the Nicene Creed was
established, it officially declared that Christ is “begotten, not made,
being of one substance with the Father.”
Later the Emperor Valentinian III gave authority of all churches
to Pope Leo I and his descendants.
St. Augustine played quite a major role too. At the age of 33 he
had a revelation. He baptized St. Ambrose and later travelled to
North Africa and found a monastic group and lived there in poverty.
He was a prolific writer and two of his most famous writings are
‘The city of God’ and ‘The Confessions’.
St. Augustine
While his ‘Confessions’ is one of the earliest examples of
introspective writing, where he deeply examines his past,
desires, and struggles, emphasizing the unconscious nature of
sin and internal conflict exploring hidden motivations and past
experiences shaping behaviour.
His ’City of God’ written in response to the fall of Rome
addressed particularly to the Visigoths posits two different worlds,
the world of Man and the world of God. While the world of Man is earthly,
sinful and is only focused on power and is pleasure seeking, the
City of God is heavenly, built on love, humility, and is eternal. He said
that man should refrain from going behind the worldly pleasures but
should instead focus on something everlasting and divine.
According to Augustine we can use our mind to achieve divine wisdom
and gain knowledge that cannot be gained through bodily senses.
He hence ‘Christianized’ Greek Philosophy by affirming the
Platonic relationship between soul and body. St. Augustine’s thought
helped fill the void in the church created to the fall of Rome.
Well, wasn’t that interesting! I now have a long story to narrate to
my friends during the lunch break! Well here was when I had to
stop reading, because no one else was going to do my homework
for me right! Here’s a little insight into the wonderful story of how
Christianity influenced the people in all aspects, psychologically,
socially, fall of Rome which affected it economically and politically.
Ciao my friend, you will have to continue this journey without me,
but don’t you worry I’ll catch up with you!
The next store was named “The Middle Ages and the feudal system”,
Boards were hung on all sides of the wall. The one on the entrance read-:
“The Middle Ages, often called the Dark Ages, a period assumed to
be associated with demonic possession, witchcraft, and superstition
defined mental illness, and religion dominated study of the mind a period
which was believed to be the era of stagnation with no intellectual pursuits,
and completely dominated by faith. But, is the truth that simple?”
I asked myself, “the Middle Ages?”, sure
enough, the next board on the wall gave me the answer I was looking for.
The board had an image and a description below it
“ the dark ages “
Source-:https://www.oerproject.com/OER-Materials/OER-Media/HTML-Articles/Origins/Unit5/The-Dark-Ages-Debate
The dark ages drastically changed the course of Roman history.
The widely prosperous city was reduced to a barely surviving agrarian
economy of 300, 000. In 410, Rome was sacked by a series of Barbarian
attacks and from then, period until 476 was characterized by succession
of non-Roman Western emperors, repeated invasions. It was a time when
Europe was plagued by political, socio-economic, and cultural instability,
which brought hardship, famine, disease, and war. The Roman empire
partitioned into the West, which was governed by the emperor from
Constantinople, and the east constituting the Byzantine Empire. The civil
administration and the strength of Roman law and order broke down, which was
soon replaced by violence and individual aggression. The Church filled in the
void left by the lacking administrative system, leading to steady increase in the
church power and papal supremacy and strengthened the dominance of Christianity.
“Sad”, I thought to myself.
Then what about the feudal system?
Sure enough, the next one was about the feudal system. I went ahead to read the description
“Feudal system of medieval Europe source-:https://www.worldhistory.org/Feudalism/
Feudal Europe was largely a loose collection of social hierarchies based on
service and loyalty. At the bottom of the hierarchy were the peasants, who
owed service to the landowner. The landowner, in turn, owed allegiance to
a local or regional noble, who could be a vassal to a king, to the Holy
Roman Emperor, or to the Pope himself. The feudal age was marked by the
values of loyalty and military support where the landlords were expected to
provide military support to the vassals, in return of the power to
withhold their fiefdom. Papal authority was further enhanced in
756 when the Frank king, Pepin, donated the lands of central Italy
to the Pope, making popes formal temporal rulers, continued until 1870.
In 800, Pope Leo III crowned another Frank king, Charlemagne,
as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and began the tradition of conferring
legitimacy on the authority of Christian rulers. The distinctions between
Church and State, between church and civil law, and between religion and
science were blurred. By the year 1000, intellectual life in western Europe
was isolated and losing ground. Most of the classic writings were lost, and
the Church censored others because of their pagan authors. The cultural life
of Europe was found largely in religious expressions of art and music (Brennan, 2014).
“Not a great time to be alive I guess”. a few people ahead of me laughed
and chuckled. Indeed it was so!. Who would want to be slaves?
I certainly did not. I moved ahead. By this time, I had reached the
frames describing the state of psychology during these years.
This time, there was no image on the frame, but just a description
“All these lead to the occupancy of religious ideas of theologians
in the center stage of psychology. Theology defined psychology, and
based the ideas of thought and perception. The Psyche was seen as a part
of religion and connection between deity and soul.”
I soon saw an alleyway, with a plaque in the front stating,
“Major ideas”. Intrigued, I went inside
the first frame that greeted me was that of the Monastic movement
“Saint Benedict “
https://www.worldhistory.org/article/930/the-monastic-movement-origins--purposes/
The Monastic movement was a church institution, pioneered by
Saint Benedict (480-543) to preserve the remnants of intellectual
life in the west. He opened the greatest monastery of the medieval
period at Monte Casino in central Italy in 529 advocated monasticism
in terms of a group of men living in absolute poverty, chastity, and
obedience. A succession of monasteries composed of clerics living under
the commune law of Saint Benedict spread throughout Europe and North Africa
and monks in Ireland kept Latin literature from the total destruction so widespread
on the Continent and slowed the erosion of intellectual life and saved art, literature,
and philosophy from complete eradication (Brennan, 2014).
I remembered reading in an article that the Early Middle Ages were breeding
grounds for superstitions and religious beliefs and significantly affected
the course of psychology and other sciences. Mental illnesses were seen as
a humanity’s conflict between virtue and vice.
The next frame that greeted me read-:
“The Christian idea of immortal soul, focused individuals as the pinnacle of
God’s creation and placed Humans on a higher pedestal with respect to
the other forms of life. The church teachings emphasized on the existence
of an inner spirit, which was separate from soul and body, reflecting the
tripartite nature of God. These ideas encouraged the aspect of introspection,
but it was tempered by the idea of Christian fellow worship, brought about
by a shared worship. Nemesius, Bishop of Emesa, in Syria (c. 390 CE), wrote
“On the Nature of Man”, promoting this view, which dominated Medieval thought.
People were rarely seen as individuals, rather as part of a collective
fighting for salvation or damnation.”
The next frame that greeted me was that of Saint Augustine.
Of course, discussing psychology of the Middle Ages, without
mentioning Saint Augustine, is meaningless. He is referred to by
many as the first western psychologist. He visualized a perfect,
peaceful society, following Platonic thought.
“Saint Augustine”
source-: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine
He tried to reconcile the ideals of psychology with Christian beliefs and
believed the mind to be the interface between divine and earth, as pointed
out in his treatise, confessions.He was the first philosopher to propose an
“inner self”, where inner unity leads to a healthy disposition, disunity to malady.
He wrote about motivations of infants, memory, origins of grief, unconscious
desires and motivations of dreams. His views held that infants lacked social
awareness and were self-centered. He also argued the punishment, leading
to fear, is a barrier to learning in children and curiosity promoted learning.
Grief and emotions in general were portrayed as a wider idea of inner turmoil
and the battle between God and self and held that mind to be superior to the body.
Views on memory-: His views on memory were an extensive addition to psychology.
Memory was found to be the single most important aspect of mind due to its
root in psychological functioning, he argued that all skills and habits derived
from memory. He identified dual memory and distinguished between memory
and recall, and that humans remember images of things in sensory memory,
whereas the mature images formed the affective memory. The principle of
dual memory was that a recalled memory was different and original.
He recognized that processes behind memory were extremely complex.
Some were sequential and orderly; others were disorganized and overwhelming.
He gave the Paradox of forgetfulness which states that there must be
memory for forgotten things that works alongside human memory and
believed that humans were born with innate knowledge and rejected the notion
of memory from previous life.
Dreams and sleep-: Dreams were seen as the thoughts and impulses suppressed
while awake and manifestations of past experiences and hence were devoid
of sins. Memory is buried in the unconscious mind and resurfaces in dreams.
Free will-: He believed in freewill, that God has given man the choice to
choose the “right path" or deviate from it;to believe in God or not is an
individual’s choice. He also argued that will is the faculty of the superior,
while emotions were associated with the lower body and possessed both cognitive
and bodily aspects. Person’s ability to control their thoughts and beliefs and persevere
with self-discipline will predispose them as habits. People have inner struggles
between inner self and God. These struggles are fuel defects and defense
mechanisms. Struggles and chaos of the world around him were also
manifestations of particular conflict and held that Key to solve inner anguish
is unconditional love. Love occupied the center stage of happiness (McIntosh, 2024).
There were also frames with numerous medieval writers who dwelled into
writings on the mind that resembled modern - day psychology. As a result, two
traditions became evident in psychology.
Medical tradition emphasized on the medical aspects and was supported
by philosophers like the Persian polymath Avicenna, who worked on the
interactions between the body and mind, which laid the groundwork for
understanding the connections between physical and mental wellbeing and
philosophical tradition emerging from a philosophical standpoint.
(Psychology in the Middle Ages - IResearchNet, 2023)
Soon, what stood before me was a frame with a portrait of a man,
with the inscription,”
“Galen"
source-: https://www.mddus.com/resources/publications/publications-library/insight-primary/q2-2022/galen-the-father-of-modern-medicine
Galen modified The Hippocratic theory of humors in the second
century CE, which dominated the Middle Ages. The four humors put
forth by Hippocrates were sought to be related to the four elements
of Empedocles theory, where blood was seen to correspond to fire,
phlegm to water, black bile to earth and yellow bile to air. The imbalances
of these four humors were seen to be manifested as diseases or illness.
The next frame that i came across, didn’t carry an image, but just an explanation
“Another theory that persisted during the Middle Ages was the
theory of inner senses, which proposed that the human mind consisted
of distinct internal faculties, of which each is responsible for processing
specific sensory information and contributing to cognitive functions.
The cognitive processes such as mental imagery and memory, which was
then named particular knowledge took the form of a three-part ventricular
system, located in the brain. The ventricles of the brain stored the particular
knowledge and provided the physiological basis for most basic cognitive functions.
When humans are awake the ventricular system was under the direct control
of the mind or soul, which was also responsible for higher order functions
(universal knowledge) such as free will, consciousness and abstract
reasoning. While asleep the spontaneous perception of images,
or dreams were thought to be the responsibility of the cognitive
faculty of the second ventricle. (Kim, 2013b)”
“Interesting… Dark ages is not what it sounds like....
This term is really misleading” i thought to myself.
The next frame that greeted me carried information about
what mental illnesses were like during the middle ages
Source-: https://sau57.org/c.php?g=607665&p=4415163
Mental illness was seen as a condition, affliction or punishment or the
inability to exercise rational control over thoughts, emotions and
behavior and instead were dictated by inner senses and primal appetites
similar to the instinctual animal behavior. Study of mind as well as
many mental disorders like depression and anxiety became tied with
sin and demonic possession. Fear of end of the world prevailed, leading to
societal mental states such as self-punishment, asceticism, self-flagellations,
Pilgrimages and processional worship.
The treatment of mental illnesses as such during the Middle Ages was hence
guided by the existing theories and concepts. Some treatments
included head surgery and bloodletting. Others included dietary
changes to influence humors, baths, exposure to peaceful scenes and
music, sexual diversions for love sickness and exorcism were
practiced in case of demonic possession (Kim, 2013b).
There were some frames that listed the role of monasteries
during this period. Apparently, monasteries provided medical
facilities for their own members, pilgrims, and travelers, and
the Byzantine Eastern Church actually used these to treat the
poor and crippled. One such was the monastery Theodosius near
Jerusalem. Magic and contagious diseases were seen as roots of
mental disturbances and a combination of methods such as amulets and
exorcisms were equipped. (McIntosh, 2024).
Soon, I reached towards the end of the store. And i saw the last and final frame
“The End of Middle Ages was marked with the emergence
of collective psychology.
Treatment of mental illness became more common, and psychology
and psychiatry began to take forms more recognizable to modern practitioners.
The two philosophers that contributed during these periods were
Gilbertus Anglicus (1180-1250) who added new mental disorders,
notably auditory and visual hallucinations and irrational phobias he also
Suggested treatments for these disorders, concentrating on building
self-confidence and developing a therapeutic relationship and Bartholomew (1203-1272)
who, in his De proprietatibus rerum, describes that sadness, business pressures,
dread, danger, foreboding and too much studying could lead to insanity and
noted stress as a contributor to mental illness.”
As I exited the store, my mind was filled with the ideas and notions that
characterized the middle ages. Though the intellectual pursuit was stagnated
during the Middle Ages, it does not establish a complete arrest in the development
of intellectual thoughts and ideas and a blind adherence to church doctrines.
The spirit of the times (Zeitgeist) of the Middle Ages played a significant role
in shaping the ideas and thoughts during the Middle Ages. It was an era,
when superstitions and religious beliefs took a center stage and faith in
church increased, leading to dominance of ideas asserted by the church.
In short, the ideas put forth during the middle ages were crucial for the
development of ideas further during the renaissance and laid the foundation
for modern contemporary society.
The unexpected journey into the Byzantine Empire
I woke up from a short nap, disoriented, my hands started brushing against the
pages of history textbook that was beneath me. Suddenly the light started flickering,
the text and images in the textbook of war, faith, and emperors started illuminating.
I couldn’t believe what was happening and as I cleared my vision I realized
I was inside the history book.
The rise of Byzantine Empire
The next sight I see is of a robbed figure who said “you are in Constantinople”
his voice echoed in the grand halls.
“The eastern Roman Empire?” I asked, very confused and breathless.
The man replied, “yes but soon it will be known as the Byzantine empire,”
to which I looked confused so he continued “Christianity is reshaping everything”.
That is when I recall the story of the Byzantine empire is originally linked to the
rise of Christianity. This change had brought a transformation in many aspects,
such as political, religious and cultural aspects of the eastern Roman Empire.
From the early days of the Roman empire to the fall of Constantinople,
Christianity became a defining force that shaped the course of history
for over a millennium. I remembered my professor explaining how this transformation
had unfolded gradually, influencing key emperors and theological debates,
and also culminated in the creation of a distinct Christian civilization,
The Byzantine empire.
The Rise of Christianity and Early Persecution (1st–4th Century CE)
At dawn of the common era,
we can see that the Roman empire was deeply rooted in Polytheism,
“but a new faith is emerging. Christianity. The Emperors don’t like it.”
my guide whispered. Hearing this I remember reading regarding the fact that
the romans believed in the ideology of multiple gods.
But however, when centuries pass, a new monotheistic faith had emerged in
the eastern provinces of the empire, which is none than Christianity.
Earlier, Christianity was seen as a section within Judaism, but it had developed more
structure and grew quickly which led to spreading across the empire.
As we walk past a prison where we heard multiple voices whispering prayers.
“ Nero, Diocletian, they are had attempted to crush it,” the guide continued. ” despite
the brutal prosecutions, Christianity grew, especially among the poor.”
The whispered prayers were about the Roman authorities, particularly from the first and
second century who had seen Christianity as a threat to the traditional practices Rome had.
As Christianity was seen as a threat, Christians were prosecuted by several emperors.
This includes Nero and Diocletian. They launched campaigns which were completely brutal
and was aim to suppress the faith. Despite the emperors suppressing, Christianity still gained
followers, especially people of lower classes and of the urban centers.
The Edict of Milan and Constantine's Conversion (4th Century CE)
Next thing you know, I found myself in the grand hall where I saw emperor Constantine
and his advisors who stood before him. “ enough with the prosecution. From this day,
Christianity will be tolerated!” he declared.
The crucial moment in the rise of Christianity came from the reign of emperor
Constantine I. In the early 4th century, Constantine set the stage for transformation
by converting to Christianity. In 313, he had issued the Edict of Milan, which had
granted religious tolerance across the Roman empire and her legalized Christianity.
This declaration had officially marked the ending of persecution and the practice of
Christianity had flourished openly.
My guide continues to say, “ Constantine, even move the capital here, to Byzantium,
and renamed it to Constantinople”. Me and my guide had explored the city life which
I found was very alive with constructions, he had me stand in front of a grand Cathedral,
which I looked at with awe. My guide smiled at my reaction and said,
“This will be the Hagia Sophia.”
I remember how my professor had mentioned in our class regarding the Hagia Sophia
being the symbol of Christianity central role in the empire, this foreshadows the
transformation of the Empire into a Christianized state. In 330, had refunded the
city of Byzantium by renaming it as Constantinople, through which he had made it
the new capital of the Roman empire. Constantinople strategically was located
between Europa Asia, which gave it the potential to become a major center of
political power, culture, and most importantly Christian worship.
The Reign of Justinian and the Flourishing of Byzantine Christianity (6th Century CE)
detail of a 6th-century mosaic at the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy.
I witnessed the time move quicker around me and the reign of emperor Justinian had begun.
A soldier next to me said,
” he wants to restore the glory of frog and unite the empire under Christianity”.
Justinian had began to rule the throne in 527 by this time, the eastern Roman empire that is
soon to be known as byzantine empire , had fully embraced Christianity.
His his rule was when the empire had hit their peak in achievements of political, religious
and cultural. He was determined to unite the Christian faith within state by laying the
foundation for what would become distinctly byzantine identity.
Justinian issued the corpus Julius, which was a new legal code that integrated
Christian principles into Roman law. He had helped with the completion of
Hagia Sophia, a cathedral, that symbolized the triumph of Christianity and
Byzantine imperial authority.
The emperor wanted to restore and expand the Roman empire through military campaigns
in the West through which he could be claim lost territories. Despite the threats received
during the Justinian rule, especially from Sassanid Persians and the growing power of Islam,
it’s still brought in an era of prosperity and religious consolidation.
The first council of Constantinople in 381, had solidified the Christian orthodoxy and
set a stage for the theological debates to take over and shape the course of the empire.
By the end of the fifth century, Christianity had taken over and made
deeper connections with the Byzantine society, influencing everything starting
from the governance and law to art and culture.
Religious Schisms and Theological Disputes (5th–6th Century CE)
Me and my guide entered a grand council hall, where we see a bishop argue,”
is Christ, both human and divine, or just divine?”
The council of Chalcedon in 451CE ruled the idea of “ two natures in one person”
To this, my guide commented,“ not everyone agrees”. He continued by saying,
” Egypt, and Syria are furious. Political and religious tensions may arise”.
My guide was trying to imply regarding how Christianity became firmly
entrenched in the Byzantine empire, but it had its own challenges.
With the fifth and sixth centuries, geological disputes,
where quite intense and visible, especially regarding the nature of Christ.
One of them was the Arian controversy,
which had dinner the full Divinity of Christ,
there were also Monophysite and Nestorian debates which had their debate center
as Christ divine and human natures,
this has passed division within the Christian community.
The council of Chalcedon in 451, had declared that Christ was
both fully human and fully divine. That is two distinct natures in one person.
This declaration was taken to end the debate,
but however, this decision was not really supported by many in Egypt and Syria.
This is because they believe that Christ is single divine nature and
this ideology remain popular. These debates were not only religious,
but also had political factors to it as certain aspects of these refs supported
different theological positions,
which had similar similarities to political and military interest.
The Monophysite controversy would have continued to challenge the university
of the empire, under a different rule but despite these disputes,
Christianity continue to serve as the bedrock of Byzantine identity.
The Decline of the West and the Rise of the Byzantine Empire (5th Century CE)
The western Roman empire had lost its rule under the barbarian invasion,
the eastern Roman Empire, which had the center Constantinople,
grew and power and influence.
The fall of Rome in 476E had marked the end of the Western Empire, but the
Eastern empire had thrived for thousands of years and also embrace Christianity.
The eastern empire now is referred as the Byzantine empire, and continue to be the
beacon of the Christian civilization. The Byzantine church became deeply involved
with the imp government,
with the emperor holding authority regarding politics and religion.
The emperors of Constantinople includes Anastasius I and later,
Justinian I, who had the mindset to maintain a Christian state even receiving
external threats from the Sassanids, Slavs and eventually the Islamic caliphates.
The Spread of Christianity and Byzantine Influence (9th–10th Century CE)
Along with with this, I had remembered what had happened in the ninth century,
the Byzantine empire had expanded their influence for from their borders
which led to a significant movement that occurred in 989 CE,
when Vladimir the great, the grand prince of Kiev had converted to Christianity
and he brought in the Christian faith to the Slavic people of eastern Europe.
This moment had marked the beginning of Christianization of the Slavic world
and also enhances Byzantine influence in this region.
The Byzantine missionaries, most notably Saints Cyril and Methodius,
had played a major role in the spread of Christianity throughout the eastern empire.
They had created a Cyrillic alphabet which would become written language
for many Slavic nations as well as strengthen the cultural and religious ties
between the Slavic people and Byzantine empire.
The Fall of Constantinople and the Legacy of Byzantine Christianity (1453 CE)
Suddenly darkness took over the sky can in fire Road as I stood on the
walls of Constantinople ask the Ottomans closed in.
The soldier near me murmured, “ this is the end”.
Suddenly silence had also taken over the city. The Byzantine empire was no more.
“Constantinople had become the current Istanbul” , my guide whispered.
What my guide had said this time was slightly wrong.
Despite the enduring influence, the empire did say numerous challenges
in the later centuries. The Ottoman Turks had gradually taken over
the Byzantine territory. By 1453 the fall of Constantinople,
had marked the end of the Byzantine empire.
The city of Constantinople, which had been the heart of Christian Empire had
fallen into the Ottoman Empire.
The legacy of the Byzantine empire had lived on, especially in Russia.
The Russian orthodox church had become the heir to the Byzantine Christian tradition
with Moscow emerging as the third home after the fall of the Constantinople.
The Russian culture, law and religion had shaped the influence seen that
and the heritage of Christian houses.
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire
Suddenly, I felt myself suddenly fading away,
but not in a way that I’m coming out of the book,
but as of I am getting pulled into another chapter or another section.
As I was being pulled back, I thought about how the past also fades away
and that this empire had shaped history in ways that is even seen today.
Christianity once started with people getting persecuted, then change to a force
that shapes the governance culture and faith over a time period of thousand years.
Into the Islamic World!
After being pulled into the book, When I open my eyes, I realize that
I’m no longer in Constantinople. I found myself in another era again.
Seeing the environment, the bustling market, the earth with scent of spices and incense.
I had a feeling that I knew where I was, Mecca. I realized I got into the next chapter
after the Byzantine. I tried to remember a few things I had read in this chapter and
I remember how this chapter was recording the emergence of Islam
and the decline of Christianity.
https://journals.openedition.org/abe/docannexe/image/4341/img-7-small580.jpg
The emergence of Islam was marked as a transformative period in world history.
It had altered the political, cultural, and religious landscape. The rise of Islam had begin
with the birth of prophet, Mohammed and by 570 CE. This reshaped, the fate of
Byzantine empire, and the broader meditative world. It took only a century for Islam
to expand from a small community in Arabia to one of the largest empires in history.
It pauses as a direct challenge to the dominance of Christianity and the regions once
ruled by the Roman and Byzantine empires.
The Birth of Muhammad and the Early Islamic Movement (570–622 CE)
Before I went to explore Mecca, I felt like I wanted to recall my memory on
what i had learnt regarding Muhammed. Muhammed was born in Mecca which
was known as the merchant city located in the Arabian peninsula.
It was a hub of trade and religion, home to the Ka’bah, which is an ancient temple
that housed 360 Idols workshop by various types in the region.
Muhammed was orphaned early in life and came from a noble family.
He was raised by his grandfather, and then later his uncle Muhammed was known
for his honesty and integrity from early age, this gave him the nickname Al Amin.
In his early life, he had spent his time working as a merchant, traveling across
the Arabian Peninsula, this experience had let him be more connected with his
own religion, as well as understood the differences in each community.
At the birth of Muhammed, the Arabian Peninsula was a deeply tribal society
and polytheism dominated religious practices.
The Hijra and the Formation of an Islamic State (622 CE)
At age 40, had began retreating to a cave in the mountains near the Mecca.
He did this to peaceful time from this chaotic world. He meditates and seek clarity,
spiritual clarity. He received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel.
Core message emphasize the awareness of God. Mohammed is teachings
initially met with resistance from the powerful tribal leaders of Mecca,
who feared that his message would reduce their authority over the jungle.
As a result, Mohammed and his friends had faced persecution,
and many of them had to flee.
Mohammed and his followers were facing hostility in Mecca.
They had to migrate to the city of Yathrib which was later known as Medina.
The event of migration was known as Hijra. When Mohammed was hiding in Medina,
he established a theocratic state creating a political and religious order based on the
principles of Islam. The people of Medina had accepted Islam and prophet.
Mohammed started getting more followers. The city had become the center for
early Islamic community and Islamic state had began to like expand.
Islam’s Expansion and Byzantine Losses (630–750 CE)
By the 630 CE, after multiple years of conflict with the Mexican tribes,
Mohammed had come back to Mecca, but this time he came back with a
large number of followers. The people in the city had surrendered without a fight.
Mohammed proceeded to clean the Ku’bah office ideas, re-dedicating it
to the workshop of Allah alone. This event had consolidated Islam in Mecca
and the Arabian Peninsula. Through this monotheism had one over
polytheistic practices, which were earlier dominated in the region.
Mohammed had passed away in 632 after a prolonged illness,
he left behind a community of Muslims that were growing rapidly.
His death had led to the elevation of Abu Bakr as next Caliph or successor.
Abu Bakr was his father-in-law and close associate. Islam began expanding even
more rapidly beyond the Arabian peninsula under the Rashidun caliphs.
By 641, Egypt had also been taken in by the Muslim forces.
The Byzantine’s influence on the Mediterranean hard weekend as Islam
started spreading all over North Africa, Spain, and Persia.
The post - Muhammed period (750–1258 CE)
Now under the leadership of Caliphs, Muslim armies have started working,
and they have began the campaigns into the Byzantine controlled
territories of Syria, Palestine, and parts of North Africa.
The Byzantine empire it is the same empire that that once was dominant and
Christian power in the Mediterranean. The empire began losing territories
ever since the growth of Muslim forces. The decline of Christianity took place
after the conquest of these region weakened the Byzantine empire.
By 641 the leadership changed to Caliph Umar, had entered Egypt.
The Muslims had defeated the Byzantine forces. Earlier Egypt was
one of the prosperous Christian lacks, but suddenly fell under the Muslim role
and with it the spread of Islam had intensified. The need to capture Egypt was seen by
many Muslims as a form of liberation. The reason for this is because the population
here has been under the control of the Byzantine empire for a long time under control,
which is something they were not used to in the native Egyptian Christian population.
The fourth Caliph had been murdered in 661CE
which marked an error of the righteous caliphs.
Umayyads shifted the capital of the Islamic empire to Damascus and expanded
the empire further into Spain, north Africa and Central Asia.
This period had witnessed Islamic rule go across was regions.
711 CE, the Muslim forces had crossed the Iberian Peninsula.
They established control over much of the region and the conquest of Spain
represented a major setback for Christianity in Europe. For the next few centuries,
it was seen that Spain remain under the Muslim role.
In 730 CE, the Muslim forces were defeated at the battle of poitiers
by The Frankish King Charles Martel. Islam shall continue to spread across
the Mediterranean through trade and cultural exchanges.
750 CE, Abbasid Caliphate had given us a golden age for Islamic civilization.
They moved the capital to Baghdad. The reserve and expanded upon the
knowledge of ancient Greek Roman and Persia.
The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1453 CE)
Suddenly, I found myself getting pulled inside the book again, but this time
the emergence of Islam was not completed and I felt so confused.
That’s when I realized I reached Constantinople again, but that’s when
I realized that it was the Ottomans who were at the gates.
Ottoman empire, is one of the powerful Islamic state,
the Ottomans renamed the city as Istanbul and established capital of their empire.
This marked the definitive end of the Byzantine empire,
and the spread of Islam increases more.
Conclusion: The Lasting Legacy of Islam
Now I think the content that I studied in Islam chapter is complete now which means
I can be pulled into the book again, hoping this time reach home.
The rise of Islam and it’s rapid expansion in the early centuries of its existence,
fundamentally shaped the political, cultural and religious order of the medieval age.
Despite the decline of Christianity, in many read it, it would be eventually recover,
particularly in a room, by the Renaissance and the rise of powerful Christian states
asserted the influence of Christianity figure it out the legacy of Islamic civilization
however ships the world today, and it also goes through the cultural contributions
and the enduring influence of Islam as the major world religion.
As I explored my surroundings a bit more, my gaze fell on
an elderly man bent over a wooden stand, his fingers tracing the outlines of a rusty sword.
"You there, traveler," he cried out, his voice harsh with age.
"Do you hear of the wars for God's will? The Crusades—those have broken kingdoms,
brought men to glory and destruction, all for the Holy Land."
His eyes went black as he leaned closer. "I once was there, lad. I marched under the Cross.
I'll tell you what I have seen….”
The First and the only Successful Crusades!
Note. Crusaders embark for the Levant. From ‘Le Roman de Godefroi de Bouillon’, France, 1337.
(Bibliothèque Nationale / Bridgeman Images)
“A long time ago, during the Middle Ages, there existed two big and powerful groups.
One group was made up of the Christian countries, called Christendom, and
the other group consisted of the Muslim countries. As the natural phenomenon
of the world goes, no two equally powerful groups can exist at the same time,
which happened to be the case with Christendom and
the Muslims who were constantly at war with each other.
The Christian Empire in the east called the Byzantine Empire,
was one of the strongest. But, in the 11th century, a new and
powerful group of Sunni Muslims called the Seljuk Turks appeared.
Originally from Central Asia, they converted to Muslims and built a strong empire.
In 1071, the Seljuk Turks won a big battle against the Byzantine Empire
called the Battle of Manzikert. After that, they caught hold of many important
Christian cities like Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), Nicea, and Antioch.
In 1092, the Seljuk ruler Malik Shah died, and his empire started to break down
into smaller parts. This made it easier for different local rulers to attack the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Emperor, Alexium I Comnenus,
alarmed by all such developments in his empire,
called for help. In 1095, he sent a message to Pope Urban II,
asking for Christian soldiers from the west to come and fight the Seljuk Turks.
Pope Urban II saw this as a great opportunity to mend relationships and
decrease the tensions between the Western and Eastern churches,
make his own influence stronger, and recapture Jerusalem,
which had been under Muslim control for over 400 years.
The Pope gave a speech at a huge meeting held in Clermont, France.
He told the Christian knights and the soldiers to go east and
fight for their faith rather than for money and honor.
He promised that anyone who joined this holy war called a Crusade,
would be forgiven for their sins.
Note. The Council of Clermont and the arrival of Pope Urban II. (Bibliothèque Nationale / Bridgeman Images)
The people enlightened and renewably empowered shouted, “Dues Vult! Deus Vult!” which
means “God wills it! God wills it!”. Thousands of knights, lords,
and even normal people decided to join the Crusades.
These warriors wore a cross on their clothes and were called Crusaders.
Some wanted to become rich and famous, but most wanted to
save their souls and go to heaven.
The Pope wanted the strong knights to fight, but his speech became so popular
that even poor peasants joined. A priest named Peter the Hermit became
the leader of these people, and they were called the People’s Crusade.
Although devoted to the cause, these people were at the end of the day uneducated and
extremely ill-mannered and unprepared.
Some of these Crusaders attacked the Jews in Germany,
killing many of them. The Church told them not to do this, but they didn’t listen.
In 1096, about 20,000 to 40,000 people in the People's Crusade began traveling east.
They were not trained soldiers, and they had little food.
When they ran out of supplies, they stole food from Christian villages
in Hungary and the Byzantine Empire.
When they reached Constantinople (present-day Istanbul),
the Byzantine Emperor, who had initially called for help,
ended up betraying his “helpers” and quickly sent them
to Antatolia to get rid of them.
There, they were attacked by the Turks and were almost completely wiped out.
Meanwhile, real knights and powerful lords from Europe also began their journey.
They were much better prepared. Some of the famous leaders were
Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin,
Hugh of Vermandois (brother of the King of France),
Robert of Flanders and Robert of Normandy, Raymond of Toulouse,
along with Bishop Adhemar, Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred.
All these warriors gathered at Constantinople.
The Byzantine Emperor, Alexius, was shocked because he only expected
a small army, not 60,000 soldiers!
The Emperor gave the Crusaders food, money, and guides,
but only if they promised to give back any land they captured.
The Crusaders agreed and crossed into Anatolia.
The first big battle took place in Nicea. After six weeks of gruesome fighting,
the city surrendered, but before the Crusaders could even try to get their hands on
the treasures of the city, the Byzantine army took control, which greatly enraged the Crusaders.
Next, at Dorylaeum, the Turks attacked the Crusaders.
At first, it looked like the Crusaders would lose, but more soldiers arrived,
and they finally won a huge victory.
After that, the Crusaders split up. Baldwin of Boulogne left the main army
and took over Edessa, creating the first Crusader state.
The rest of the army marched to Antioch in October 1097.
This city was very strong, and the Crusaders couldn't surround it completely.
They ran out of food and many died from hunger.
A small fleet brought supplies from the island of Cyprus,
but things were still in bad condition. Then, one night, Bohemond of Taranto
bribed a guard to let them into the city. The Crusaders stormed Antioch,
killed many people, and captured the city.
But soon, a huge Turkish army led by Kür Bugha arrived.
The Crusaders were trapped inside Antioch and starving again.
Then, a miracle happened! The Crusaders found what they believed
was the Holy Lance (a weapon that had stabbed Jesus).
This gave them hope and courage.
Even though they were outnumbered, the Crusaders charged out of the city
and defeated the Turkish army. The remaining Muslims inside Antioch surrendered.
Note. Map of the First Crusade, 1096 - 1099, Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)
At the same time, the Egyptian Fatimids, who were also Muslims but were
enemies of the Turks, took control of Jerusalem. They even offered to make
peace with the Crusaders, but the Crusaders refused.
Instead of going to Jerusalem immediately, the Crusaders argued over
who should rule Antioch. Bohemond kept it for himself, breaking
his promise to the Byzantine Emperor.
Finally, in 1099, the Crusaders marched to Jerusalem. Along the way,
many villages surrendered and gave them food. But the Fatimids poisoned wells
and destroyed food sources to slow them down.
When the Crusaders reached Jerusalem on June 7, 1099, they were
very happy but also very weak. They didn’t have enough soldiers or food
to properly attack the city.
At first, their attack failed. But then, ships from Italy arrived and
gave them wood to build siege towers.
With these towers, they launched a final attack on July 15, 1099.
The Crusaders broke into the city and went on a rampage,
killing Muslims, Jews, men, women, and children. It was one of the
most violent massacres of that time.
The Crusaders had won. Four weeks later, they defeated an
Egyptian army at the Battle of Ascalon, marking their victory complete.
Most Crusaders returned home, but some stayed to rule the new
Crusader States, The Kingdom of Jerusalem, The County of Tripoli,
The Principality of Antioch, and, The County of Edessa.
However, the Muslim world wouldn’t stay divided forever.
Soon, they started their own holy war (Jihad) against the Crusaders.
This was only the first Crusade, but many more would follow over the
next 200 years. However, none of them would be as successful as this one.
Pope Urban II, the man who started the Crusade, died just two weeks
after Jerusalem was captured. He never got to hear about the victory.
Crusades 2-8: Epic Fails and Misadventures!
Although the first crusades were a success, this victory wasn’t long-lasting.
Soon after, the Muslims started recapturing the lands
they had lost in the Holy Land including Jerusalem.
By 1291, the last Christian city, Acre, fell into the Muslim hands,
and the Crusades were over.
Here is a short video that explains all the epic misadventures of the Crusades 2-8!
2-8 crusades video
The Reawakening of Intellectual Life
Although the Crusades were a failure in terms of military expeditions and
religious movements, they had a great influence on the reorganization
and reconsolidation of Western Europe. The Crusades brought contact and
commerce with other civilizations and led to the transmission of
information from Islam to the West.
This included the writings and preachings of the Greek masters; mathematics,
architecture, and medicine which had been preserved by Islamic scholars.
Moreover, since intellectual life had fared much better in the Islamic territories,
it led to a stimulation of the same within the Europeans, who before had become
unruly and disorganized with the sacking of Rome.
The political life of Europe slowly and steadily started reshaping with the
emergence of national states, however, at the expense of Papal power.
Another benefit of the Crusades was the restructuring of rivalries from a
local level to a national identity, which was possible due to the required
raising of large armies on an international level. Moreover, it also facilitaed trade
as the gateway to vast commercial markets had opened due to the Crusades.
Finally, it brough back the classic scholarship of the past and led to
its integration in Christianity.
Feudalism was discarded and intellectual life rebirthed.”
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