SOCRATES
-By Adwaitha Manoj (2434603)
AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCRATES
Socrates is an ancient Greek Philosopher from Athens who is often regarded as one of the founding fathers of Western philosophy. Even though the details of his personal life have not been recorded, we get an insight into his values and thoughts through the works of Plato and Xenoph, Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos testaments, and Aristophanes' plays. Socrates was born in 469 BCE to Sophroniscus, a stonemason, and Phaenarete, a midwife. He was married to Xanthippe and had three sons named Lamprocles, Sophroniscus, and Menexenus.
Socrates was born in modest surroundings which rather helped him to shape his thoughts and values regarding worldly life. He lived in an age that was not just flourished with the social, political, and intellectual achievements of Athens but also very much marked by the turmoil of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) in which Socrates himself served as one Hoplite in the Athenian Army. However, it was only during his middle age that he became increasingly drawn into discussions and reflections on purely intellectual and philosophical subjects. It is said that the Oracle of Delphi played a very important role in Socrates' path towards philosophy. When Socrates' friend Chaerephon visited the Oracle of Delphi, a sacred shrine ,Pythia, the priestess of Apollo, pronounced Socrates to be the wisest of all men. This made Socrates to embark on an journey to inquiry into the understanding of the real nature of wisdom. While he conversed with poets, politicians, and craftsmen, Socrates learned that his wisdom resided in his knowledge of his own ignorance, i.e., he came to know that he hardly knew what virtue was, let alone what it meant to live a good life. He also took it up as his life mission to encourage people to be aware of their ignorance and strive to attain the real wisdom.
Socrates is one among the earliest philosophers who changed the focus of study from nature and natural phenomena to human beings, their behavior, ethics, and the nature of knowledge. He is equally credited for his enquiry method, the Socratic Method, where he encouraged discussions and challenged the accepted standards and assumptions, leading to contradictions in people's beliefs. Although his thoughts were liked and accepted as quite influential, they gave rise to some controversy and have led to questions in the minds of many. He claimed that the pursuit of knowledge was highly essential for virtue and the good life, thus highlighting the importance of "Knowing Thyself" which was also based upon the belief that "an unexamined life is not worth living." Thus, his ideologies influenced philosophy, ethics, and critical thinking ever since. Socrates is equally relevant to the field of psychology for his methods and ideas which established the foundation for many psychological theories and approaches, even though he was a philosopher rather than a psychologist.
He openly criticized Athenian democracy in the time when Athens was making tremendous efforts to stabilize and recover from its defeat by Sparta, thus by establishing democracy as an efficient form of Government. Socrates believed that most of the citizens were not only completely unaware of the political turmoil but were also easily manipulated by self-serving leaders into going along with anything these leaders had in mind. Thus, the citizens could not be trusted with a vote and democratic government was also not an option. He also publicly questioned traditional values and participated in debates that deeply disturbed many of the prominent people in Athens. Socrates, in spite of all the contributions, was brought to court in 399 BCE and accused of impiety and corrupting the youths of Athens. Even though there was an opportunity for him to escape, he decided to obey the law and met his death by drinking poison hemlock.
SOCRATIC METHOD
-By Sukhleen Kaur (2434662)
Introduction
The Greek Philosopher,
Socrates, introduced Socratic Questioning. He believed, “Doubt is the origin of
Truth.” It is something similar to what Sophists said that Skepticism can
uncover the ‘Truth’. Here, ‘Doubt’ is given importance as ‘Doubt’ gives rise to
Questions, which in-turn demand answers, then questions arise from those
answers and this process continues in order to find the Truth.
His Philosophy extended beyond
questioning others, he emphasized the importance of questioning oneself, that
is Self-Examination; for instance, questioning the purpose of life or morality
of actions. He asserted that unexamined life is not worth-living. He considered
Self-Examination as the essence of the famous Greek quote, “Know Thyself.”
This same Philosophy, he
imposed on himself as well, he stated, “What I do not know I do not think I
know.” He questions about the unknown things to search the truth. He
cross-examined the moral concepts of his own time, such as, wisdom, temperance,
courage and most importantly justice.
The method of Socrates is
named as ‘Dialectics’, Di means two and lectics means words. It is the clash
between two perspectives, that is the claim and the question raised against it.
This particular concept was taken by Anaximander. Socrates said that one claim
is responsible for further premises, so it is necessary to look for the
foundation of that claim and check if there is something that contradicts that;
it is the hypothesis elimination through revealing internal contradiction.
This means that the Socratic
Dialectics are based on the principle of non-contradiction, that is no claim
can be contradictory to another claim. In the questioning process, if two
opposing statements are encountered, this reveals that there has been some
mistake in the search for truth and the truth is still unknown. And Dialectics
help in finding that ‘mistake.’
Socrates never thought high of
himself, instead, he always said, “I know only one thing that I know nothing,”
this is called Socratic Ignorance. Socrates didn’t believe in giving lectures
as if he knows everything and is conveying his knowledge. He used to visit
marketplaces and preferred having discussions over there with ordinary people.
In the markets, he would pick one person and question him about any familiar
aspect like what is strength. He expressed that he was not one of the learnt
men but he was a medium which can help other people to expand their knowledge.
Steps of
Socratic Method
Socratic method simply uses a questioning approach, that follows certain approach. Although the steps of Socratic Method are not explicitly told by Socrates, but with the help of the definition and explanation of his method, the whole procedure can be understood with few simple steps. These steps are given as follows:
1. Questioning
This is about asking a of a
particular concept that is not thoroughly and clearly defined. And in Socrates’
case, the concept was mostly abstract.
Example: What is Justice?
2. Active
Listening
This is to actively listen to
the answer of the question, that is to hear it and make a meaning out of it.
Example: Someone said,
“Justice is the fair and impartial treatment of individuals.” Then the other
person, who questioned, will make a meaning out of it and will try to
understand with the help of his own preconceived notions.
3. Critical
examination
It is to think thoroughly
about the given answer and check if there is any idea or fact that is
contradicting that particular statement or the question could be about any
limitation of the provided answer.
Example: Is Justice limited to
the concept of equal treatment.
4. Refinement
Critical Examination will
compel the other individual to think more and refine his answer, either by
adding something or changing the answer.
Example: Justice works on the
principle of fairness, it’s not just limited to treatment, but it also looks
about the ‘deserving’ part.
5. Repetition
Again, the whole process of active
listening, critical examination and re-evaluation is repeated, until the
question can be answered in a way that can’t be opposed any further.
Pictorial
Illustration:
Influence
of Socratic Method in Athens
Socratic Method played a significant
role in molding Athen’s politics and education. It questioned the established
beliefs of the society, such as, the true definition of justice, wisdom, etc. This
forced the youth to think critically and demand for explanations, which
ultimately became the reason of Socrates’ death.
One of the important impacts
of Socratic Method can be seen in the form of Democratic Debates. At that time,
Athens followed Democracy, so its government was open to discussions and
debates with the public. Socrates’ questioning revealed the gaps in the reasoning
of the government, which pushed the government to think harder and make things
clear in the decision-making (Guthrie,
1971). It was important for the government to do so, as the
citizens no longer believed in the accepted beliefs of the traditions, they
started demanding justifications and explanations for every action.
In addition to this, Socratic
Method influenced the Education system. Socrates didn’t believe in charging
fees for teaching and employing memory focused education. His teaching method
employed questioning, criticizing and thinking (Kahn, 1996).
He encouraged his students to not just accept whatever he says as ‘facts’, but
to think about it and question. This laid the foundation for Critical Thinking
and Logical Reasoning, which further shaped the teaching approaches of Plato’s
Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum.
However, Socrates’ ideas were
not appreciated as it challenged the authority of those in power and exposed
their hypocrite and unjustifiable actions. This ultimately became the reason of
his execution as well, which is mentioned in the book, “Plato’s Apology” (Plato, trans. 2002).
Influence
of Socratic Method on Psychological Theories
The
essence of Socratic Method lies in Critical thinking and Logical Reasoning, and
these concepts have played a major role in many of the prominent psychological
theories. For instance, Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory, Jean Piaget’s
understanding of construction of children’s knowledge and Carl Roger’s
self-actualization theory. Moreover, it lays the foundation of Lev Vygotsky’s
fundamental concept of learning.
Sigmund
Freud:
Sigmund
Freud’s Psychoanalysis approach states that unconscious mind is full of
internal conflicts and unsaid desires; and is the main reason of the issues
being faced consciously. He believed that if somehow, the internal conflicts
are revealed and resolved then there are high chances of improvement in the
mental health condition.
He
employed Free Association method for this, which revolves around the concept of
opening and exploring oneself. Freud used to allow and urge his patients to
speak whatever they feel like and put their heart out; with the help of which,
the client would be able to be aware of the underlying conflicts and search for
solutions. It is very much similar to Introspection, the only difference is
that, Freud used to work here as a medium for easy self-exploration. This is
quite similar to Socrates’ sayings, as he also believed in knowing oneself that
makes one’s life worth-living.
Moreover,
in the questioning part, Freud is almost acting like the ancient time Socrates,
who used to question people, challenge their assumptions and compelled them to
think critically and look within themselves. Freud is guiding his clients to
question their own thoughts, desires and actions to uncover the conflicts of Id
(immediate pleasure), Ego (Rationality) and Super-Ego (Morality). This is
assisted by open-ended questions and critical thinking, which ultimately leads
to the path of Self-Awareness.
Jean
Piaget:
Jean
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are based on his understanding of
children’s reality perceiving and learning experiences. He believed that
children construct their knowledge over time, this approach is known as
Constructivism. To understand this process of constructing the knowledge, he
employed the technique of questioning.
He
actively questioned the children about their learning experiences and how they
associate things together. His most famous question about the height and the
volume of the glass, in which he put the same amount of water in two glasses,
one that is wide and small and the other that is tall and narrow; then he asked
the children that which glass had more water. In the initial stages of
development, the children used to point at the taller glass as their answer,
but with time, as they started constructing their knowledge, thinking
critically and actively, on the basis of reasoning, it was easy for them to
identify that both the glasses had same amount of water. All this led to the
introduction and explanation of the four stages of cognitive development –
sensorimotor, pre operational, concrete operational and formal operational.
Here,
the Socratic Method helped as Piaget used the questioning method to evoke a
thinking process and challenge the assumptions, that ultimately led to critical
thinking and logical reasoning. Piaget saw that the children tend to search for
the truth and conclusion, when their cognitive frameworks are challenged; and a
process of re-evaluation follows by, with a more intellectual and logical
approach.
Carl
Rogers:
Carl
Rogers’ Self-Actualization Theory and Client-Cantered Therapy revolves around
examining oneself. Unlike Freud’s focus on unconscious desires, this theory
emphasizes on a humanistic approach, that is to look within oneself and to
realize one’s actual potential. In the therapy, he encourages his clients to
answer open-ended and thought-provoking questions, which ultimately leads to
self-awareness to some extent.
The
client-centred therapy helps the clients to expand their knowledge about
themselves, by encountering the conflicts and applying solutions to those on
their own. This is a path to personal growth. Moreover, as it plays a part in
self-awareness, it assists the client in finding and resolving the incongruence
between their ideal-self and real-self, that (incongruence) can work as an obstacle
in the way of self-actualization (gaining one’s full potential).
Here,
the Client-Centred Therapy is quite similar to the Socratic Method as it uses
questioning and those questions can be answered from the knowledge within and
about oneself. It also focuses on active listening and creating further
questions from the given answers on the therapist’s part. This ongoing process
of questioning urges the client to think more critically and restructure their
own beliefs and knowledge, which ultimately leads to the truth; that in this
case, is the truth about oneself.
Lev
Vygotsky:
Lev
Vygotsky gave a fundamental concept of learning, that is, Zone of Proximal
Dependence (ZPD). This concept is quite similar to Socratic Method as
importance is given to the questioning and dialogue part, which ultimately
leads to a comprehensive and deep understanding of a particular concept.
Vygotsky
believed that learning is more effective when it is sought through
thought-provoking questions and done independently. He emphasized that a
dialogue with an expert in a particular subject, can lead to enhanced learning
and knowledge, instead of learning with the primitive approach, where the
teacher simply states the facts. It is similar to scaffolding, where a learnt
person helps the individual to gradually acquire deeper understanding of a
particular concept independently with the help of critical thinking and logical
reasoning.
Here,
Socratic Method is directly linked to the concept of ZPD, as ZPD employs thought-provoking
questions and challenges assumptions, that urges the people to think critically
about their existing knowledge and construct new concepts or re-construct previous
ones. Socrates also used the dialogue-based approach to find the truth and it
helped him in gaining knowledge more efficiently.
Influence
on Therapeutic approach – Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a therapeutic approach that helps in dealing with
negative behavioural patterns. It is a combined form of two approaches –
Cognitive Therapy and Behavioural Therapy. In this, the main role is played by
the client himself, and the psychologist acts as a facilitator between the
client and his thought patterns.
With
the help of Socratic Questioning, the client’s irrational beliefs and negative
thought patterns that can have an adverse effect on the mental health condition
of the client, are challenged. The client is encouraged to expand his knowledge
about himself and expose his thoughts. Then structured and open-ended questions
are asked on the basis of the provided answers, which will compel the client to
reconsider his thinking about certain aspects, especially the pessimistic
thought patterns, and reconstruct or restructure those for improvement.
Despite
of providing direct answers or solutions to the client, the therapist urges him
to think critically and intellectually about their irrational and negative
thoughts. It will help the client to structure his thoughts on his own and will
enhance his ability to think critically. Moreover, it will also have a positive
impact on the problem-solving skills of the client.
The
therapy can be considered as a Dialogue between the therapist and the client,
that will ultimately lead to self-awareness. This implies the use of Socratic
Method here, in which Socrates acted as a medium and helped the people reach
the ‘Truth.’ The Socratic Dialogue starts with one simple question, then the
provided answers are questioned again, till no contradictory question can be
formed from the answer.
Same
as this, the therapist asks multiple thought-provoking and challenging
questions to the client, that requires critical thinking and deeper
understanding of oneself. The client uses the method of Introspection (to look
within oneself), which not only helps in giving answers, but also organizing
the thought patterns within a rational framework.
In
this way, the idea of Socratic Questioning has been used in a therapeutic
approach that has proven to be a successful intervention in dealing with
psychological issues. And in the same way, the use and influence of Socratic
Method goes beyond CBT and is used in other Psychotherapies such as Rational
Emotive Behaviour Therapy, Existential Therapy and Motivational Interviews. Here,
the Socratic Method plays a significant role in rationalizing the individual
thoughts and dealing with dilemmas.
Neuroscientific
effect of Socratic Questioning
Socratic
Method employs critical thinking, decision-making, logical reasoning and
rational thinking; these come under higher-cognitive functions. This means that
Socratic Method involves metacognition and cognitive restructuring. These are
the functions of Prefrontal Cortex; thus, the Prefrontal Cortex is activated by
Socratic Method. This activation has proved to be helpful in acquiring
abilities of analytical reasoning and problem-solving. And these effects of
Socratic Method also justify its use in Therapeutic Approaches.
Conclusion
Socratic
Method is prevalent today as well, it can be seen in Educational Psychology and
various Pedagogical approaches. Although it has some limitations, that consists
of ambiguity, chances of manipulation of the direction, ambiguity, etc; but
still, there is no doubt that Socratic Method has played a significant role in
shaping intellectual minds. In today’s AI world also, Socratic Method can find
its place in creating personalized teaching methods and mental health interventions.
Thus, Socratic method can be viewed as a journey towards intellect.
References:
Brennan, J. F., &
Houde, K. A. (2022). History and systems of psychology (7th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Cherry, K. (2024,
January 12). Client-centered therapy: Definition, types, techniques, and
efficacy. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/client-centered-therapy-2795999
Evaluating the Socratic
Method: Benefits and Limitations. (n.d.). Philosophy Institute. https://philosophy.institute/western-philosophy/evaluating-socratic-method-benefits-limitations/
Kraut, R. (n.d.).
Socratic method. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Socratic-method
McLeod, S. (2024,
August 5). Piaget's theory and stages of cognitive development. Simply
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
McLeod, S. (2024,
August 9). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/zone-of-proximal-development.html
Socratic questioning in
CBT: A powerful tool for cognitive restructuring. (n.d.). NeuroLaunch. https://neurolaunch.com/socratic-questioning-cbt/
Sutton, J. (2020, June
19). Socratic questioning in psychology: Examples and techniques. PositivePsychology.com.
https://positivepsychology.com/socratic-questioning/
The principle of free
association. (n.d.). Easy Sociology. https://easysociology.com/general-sociology/the-principle-of-free-association/
KNOW THYSELF
CONCEPT OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND MENTAL
WELL-BEING
- By Anahad Kaur Kalra (2434608)
The Kierkegaard who was influenced by Socrates also says that
self-knowledge—knowing yourself deeply—is key to living ethically. A person who
lives ethically understands themselves clearly. They don’t follow whims or
passing ideas and desires. They’re not like a shifting kind of image that looks
different depending on how you’re looking at it. They stay steadfast and solid.
The phrase “know yourself” is key here. It means that knowing who you actually
are doesn’t happen after you’ve made choices in life — it should help you make
those choices from the beginning. But this kind of self-knowledge is not just
thinking or reflecting about yourself. It’s a matter of determining who do you
want to be and taking charge of your life. By “choosing yourself,” I mean consciously
deciding how you want to live, whom you want to be. Lippitt, J.
(2017).
One of the speeches addressed by President Kelly
Thompson at Western Kentucky University on July 24, 1957, elaborates on the
topic know thyself by addressing that-
"Know Thyself"?
Where is there to be found a better way than by
knowing thy own mind? How better can one know his own mind than to develop it
and to expand it, demanding from it lucid, dependable, defendable thinking? In
conclusion may I again suggest that this magnificent achievement is possible
for any and all of us. If it is achieved, surely then it shall be possible for
us to know that-
Having thought too beautiful" we can
accomplish the beautiful.
Having thought the good, we can do the good.
Having thought the truth, WE can
live too truth.
This means what is a better way than know thy own
mind and being able to develop it by asking of it clear, reliable, defensible
reasoning? To conclude Thompson says we all are filled with possibilities. Only if
it is, then here may we answer that:
Having believed too beautiful” we can do beautiful.
Having thought the good, we can do good.
We can live truth too, after we thought the truth. [Western
Kentucky University. (1957).]
Socrates emphasized on reflection which comes from the Latin word “Reflectere”, which means “to bend” and “to turn back on the self”. From an etymological origin a variety of meanings were derived, including whether and how persons can know or relate to themselves. When a person takes an experience from the outside world, brings it into existence, turns it over in the mind and makes connections to other experiences while filtering it through the personal bias, it is called reflection, Dewey (1910/1933). Reflection is a mental activity where individuals ask questions of themselves about their experiences, to make sense of what is going on in their lives and even to make our actions visible. The role of self is prevalent in making sense of one’s own experiences. (“Reflection: A Socratic Approach,” n.d.-b)
Conceptual comparison reveals three different
approaches toward reflection. The first approach involves reflection in the
presence of self-awareness. This approach emphasizes the investigation of
personal knowledge structures by means of introspection (e.g., Mann et al.,
2009; Procee, 2006). The second approach considers reflection in terms of
self-reference. Self-reference pays attention to the self-other relationship
and stresses the evaluative rather than critical nature of reflection (e.g.,
Gürtner et al., 2007; Van Woerkom & Croon, 2008). The third approach is
referred to as self-inquiry. Self-inquiry includes “epistemic” interest in the
self by means of questioning assumptions one previously has taken for granted
(e.g., Livengood et al., 2010; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999)
Stimuli and intervention techniques give some
indication of what makes people reflect. Practicing or learning-by-doing is
considered an important stimulus for reflection (e.g., Jordan, 2010; Masui
& De Corte, 2005). So, by revisiting your experiences after the event, and
even immediately during the process, you can identify what is efficient and
what is not. Thus, seeing things in retrospect improves learning. Feedback from
relevant others like Mann et al. (2009) and Behaviour evaluation is often
mentioned as a trigger for [Schippers et al. (2007)] reflection. Methods of
intervening on reflection involve self-reporting (e.g., Kember & Leung,
2000), evaluation of task performance (e.g., Gürtner et al., 2007), coaching (e.g.,
Jordan, 2010), and journaling (e.g., Bruno et al., 2011). Reflection’s main
purpose attributed by scholars is assessing cognitive functioning. Reflection
is used to determine the critical thinking of someone. Other uses are making
sense of things (e.g., Bruno et al., 2011; Jordan, 2010) and redirect oneself
or self-regulation skills (e.g., Anseel et al., 2009; Procee, 2006). Livengood
et al. (2010) have stressed on the need of reflection as a virtue or
legitimation of cognitive behaviour. Other studies have found that reflection
improves performance. In their article, Mann et al. (2009) mentioned mixed
effects of reflection on performance. This supports the negative and mixed
effects from reflection on well-being (e.g., Lyke, 2009; Trapnell &
Campbell, 1999). With regard to understanding, again some studies demonstrate
mixed or positive effects (e.g., Davis & Klaes, 2003; Grant et al., 2002;
Jordan, 2010; Livengood et al., 2010; Rogers, 2001). This suggests that a person reflects to
qualify their own cognitive functioning in terms of task performance and
critical understanding and to manage their own behaviour.
This suggests that a person reflects to qualify
their own cognitive functioning in terms of task performance and critical
understanding and to manage their own behaviour. When a person’s thinking ends
in vicious circles, reflection hampers well-being rather than improving
performance. However, all studies seem to be caught in a chicken-and-egg
situation: They suggest that reflection has positive results for cognitive
functioning and for performance, but depend on the very same person's reports
about their cognitive functioning, their performance, or the reception of a
stimulus—if not incentive to reflect.
We have a general idea of why we might need to do self-reflection.
After all, it ought to be about knowing oneself. Now those two observations you
can unconditionally relate to the ancient principle of "know thyself"
in that the more you try to evoke yourself you get layers upon layers so you
cannot shed more light because of the paradox of yourself. It implies that
self-examination can lead to not just clarity, but also ambiguity in one’s gaze
on one self and so is true about both the concepts: that none of these concepts
can really be achieved in completion.
A second caveat has to do with the ironically
self-reflective paradox of psychology or what might be referred to as its blind
spot. True, as William James (1890) wrote, “the great snare of the
psychologist” (p. 196) is that this is an absolutely common thing for
psychologists to do: Confuse what their participant and psychologist thinks. When I see a
hole somewhere under a tree, it is easier for the psychologist to think that
their participant also sees a rat hole, if the psychologist knows about rats
and their holes (as many of them seem to do). It is the blind spot of the
psychologist to not realize that his or her participant might just see a rabbit
hole. Again, this includes what can happen in reflection research: Is it
reflection in the eye of the beholder or in the eye of the psychologist?
Having found multiple problems at several levels
in studies of reflection, we conclude that a more thorough understanding of the
conceptual problems involved in reflection is needed. This analysis suggests
that reflection could still be seen as a substitute dialogue with another
person. The psychology of reflection might be inspired by methods used for a
century or more in penal law. Asking a person to self-reflect with the
possibility that a third person might “fact check” all assertions might help to
unravel the methodological and conceptual knots psychology is in. It would be
of key value for attaining positive results. Another inspiration might be found
in the way the use of mental imagery is tested by presenting participants with
two-choice questions about 3D structures (Metzler & Shepard, 1982; Shepard,
1982). It would resemble the Socratic method, though not so much as a
rhetorical device, but as a forced choice designed to check true reflectivity
A different approach will come from
neuropsychology. This study does not suggest that reduction of neurological
events gives definite answers. Nevertheless, neurological evidence can help to
control for claims about the relationship between behaviour and internal
intentions, reflected or otherwise. In
general, claims that reflection helps to improve action by learning to better
respond to complex situations could benefit from triangulation, if not
quadrangulation or quadrangulation of methods that are insufficient on their
own. Reflection as an inner argument needs anchor points to reality. As in law,
stories of what happened (who did what, why did he do it, is it punishable
behaviour?) need anchor points for a judge or jury to decide on
prosecution. Overall, we suppose that
reflection is truly Socratic. Superficially, it resembles a dialogue and could
be called discursive, as suggested elsewhere (Larrain & Haye, 2012). On a
deeper level, we suggest that reflection resembles the actual content of what
Socrates presented to the docile slave. Socrates gave him rhetorical questions,
that is, answers phrased as questions to which the obedient slave could only
answer with a “yes” or, depending on the question, with a “no.” The slight
difference with the “real” Socrates is that our inner Socrates cannot avoid any
demand characteristics (Orne, 1962), and that our inner slave has a
self-interest in the answer.
Impact on Mental Well-Being
Socrates’ idea of “knowing thyself” then is
directly relevant to contemporary ideas about mental well-being. When people
are aware of their own thoughts, feelings, and impulses, they can respond to
stress and anxiety, as well as their personal challenges, much more
effectively. These enable emotional intelligence which allows people to:
• Identify and handle their emotions appropriately.
• Recognize the impact of their behaviour on
others.
• Take stock of what is important in life — their
principles and purpose.
But, in psychotherapy, facilitating a better
understanding of oneself generally results in better emotional regulation,
greater satisfaction with one's life, and healthier coping skills.
Applications in Therapy
Modern psychology’s emphasis self-introspection
Contemporary psychology has progressively stressed
the importance of introspection as a key instrument in the exploration of human behaviour,
emotions, and cognitive processes. Introspection — the act of looking inward, examining
thoughts, feelings, moods, preferences — traces its heritage to early
psychological theories, including of the structuralism proposed by Wilhelm
Wundt, which used self-reported experience as a means to study the mind.
Introspection had a bad rap during the behaviouralist era because of its
subjectivity, but modern psychology has reclaimed it as important to things
like mindfulness, self-awareness and emotional regulation.
o Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy (CBT) today base their approach on this idea of
sharing introspective thoughts. practitioners use Socratic questioning to help
their clients discover their false thoughts. Because when the conversation
reveals deeper levels of thinking, clients become aware of their own thought
processes and emotional triggers. These nurtures increased self-awareness, enabling
a reduction in anxiety and depressive symptoms. Such approaches promote
self-reflection on what we think and feel in order to better detect patterns,
question automatic thoughts, and create better coping skills. At the most
concentrated level, mindfulness practices which require inward attention to
mild stimuli in the here and now depend on inward awareness to alleviate stress
and to enhance mental health outcomes (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
In addition, self-analysis is also one of the main components
of emotion intelligence that will help people in identifying their emotions and
enables the person to handle the emotions of others which affect his interpersonal
life (Goleman, 1995). Studies show that engaging in introspective practices increase
self-regulation and improves decision-making because it promotes a greater
sense of self-awareness (Grant, Franklin, & Langford, 2002).
However, psychology today recognizes that
introspection has its limits, including biases and inaccuracies in
self-reporting. Because of these potential problems, people who study
introspection frequently supplement their data with objective data like
neuroimaging or behavioural observations to gain a better picture of what
people are thinking.
In summary, introspection stills serve as a basis
of psychology in the modern age, providing insight of the mind. Its inclusion
in therapeutic methods and investigations repeats its ongoing importance in
supporting mental health and self-discovery.
Self-Knowledge in Modern Psychology
o Humanistic
Psychology (Carl Rogers’ Self-Concept Theory): Carl Rogers, one of the
founders of humanistic psychology, stated that self-awareness is a prerequisite
to a healthy personality and positive self-environment relation. He introduced
the idea of the self-concept that is what we think and feel about ourselves. In
Rogers’s view, a healthy self-concept, congruent with experiences, resulted in
self-acceptance and psychological health. We experience psychological distress
when there’s incongruence, or a gap, between who we think we are and what we
actually do. Rogers’ belief in how one must know the self to understand where
one lies on the journey parallels Socratic ideas of self-knowledge.
o Introspection:
It is a process of examining ourselves. In therapeutic practice, specifically
humanistic and psychodynamic paradigms, introspection can shed light on
unconscious motives contributing to personal breakthroughs and emotional
recovery. It is consistent with Socratic self-study, which encourages
individuals to examine themselves critically.
o Personality
psychology consists of self-awareness which plays a crucial part in
modern psychology. Discovering those of yourself, can result in self-control,
space for other people in your life, and improved judgement.
o Mindfulness-Based
Therapies: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) helps people focus on what they are thinking
and feeling right now. In doing so, individuals learn to notice their internal
life in a non-judgmental way, which encourages a healthier relationship with ideas
and feelings, similar to the process of Socratic self-examination. Advance the
similar concept of noting thinking, so that people watch their thoughts,
realized that not all thoughts need to be understood or controlled. The
acceptance of uncertainty can support psychological flexibility and emotional
resilience.
To sum up, self-awareness comes from the ancient,
Socratic philosophical notion of 'Know Thyself', and remains crucial for our
mental health and self-development. According to Socrates self-knowledge can
lead you a happy life if you make efforts to know about your strengths and
weaknesses and controls your desires and appetites. Human beings can
self-reflect and improve emotional regulation and resilience by activities like
introspection, mindfulness, and cognitive-behavioural therapy. Self-knowledge can help bring clarity and
emotional stability, but excessive introspection can cause confusion. Modern
psychology does so by combining self-reflection with objective measures such as
neuroimaging. Socrates, an early champion of self-awareness, and people today
who embrace it, encourage us to use our minds and hearts to confront life's
challenges with meaning, emotional intelligence, and a higher degree of
connection to ourselves and others.
Aoufy, K. E., Pollina, A., Piccioli, F., Pezzutto, A.,
Cerinic, M. M., & Bongi, S. M. (2018b). AB1432-HPR Mindfulness-based stress
reduction (MBSR) protocol applied to systemic sclerosis (SSC) patients: a pilot
interventional study focused on nursing assessment and perceived stress. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 1849.2-1850. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2018-eular.3710
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emotion: not just for interpersonal scholars anymore. Communication Theory,
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Lippitt, J. (2017). Self-knowledge in
Kierkegaard. In Ursula Renz (Ed.), Self-knowledge: a history. Oxford
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Reader. https://core.ac.uk/reader/211227292
Ethics,
Morality, and Psychological Development
-By Mahak Sumit Chhajer (2434629)
‘Ethics’
is derived from the Greek adjective, ‘ethica’ which largely comes from ‘ethos,
and ‘Moral’ is derived from the Latin word, ‘mores’, which stands for customs
or habits. ‘Ethics’ is the branch of Moral Philosophy.
Ethics
is about making judgments regarding behavior in terms of ideals, and psychology
looks at how behavior develops and changes over time. In the terminology of Mackenzie, “Ethics is the study of what
is right or good in human conduct.” Ethics is a normative science as it studies
about ideal, standards, and norms. Human life consists of three Ideals; Truth,
Beauty, and Good.
We
can differentiate three kinds of thinking, the first one refers to the
historical or scientific research, which is done by psychologists, historians.
The aim of this step is to explain the idea of morality or initiate a theory to
answer the ethical questions posed by the humans. The second one is based on
the reasoning. We tend to ask questions like, if this is right. We debate
within ourselves and then form a normative judgement which acts as the
conclusion. Thirdly, it is the ‘critical’ thinking which limits the
justification of normative judgement. It does not involve making or defending
arguments. It asks logical questions and not questions like if it is ‘good’ or
‘bad’.
In ancient Athens, people noticed that laws kept changing depending on
who was in power. This made them question what laws and morals were really
based on. The Sophists, a group of teachers, believed that morality was learned
through habit and practice, like a skill. They thought "goodness" was
whatever worked best for the person in power. Socrates disagreed. He argued that morality is based on reason,
not habits or personal gain. According to him:
- Virtue
is knowledge – If people truly understand what is right,
they won’t do wrong.
- Virtue
can be taught – Since virtue is knowledge, it can be
learned like any other subject.
- Virtue is one-
All good qualities (like courage, wisdom, and justice) must have come from
the same source.
Socrates thought that reason should guide people in morals instead of
emotions and desires. He is still around today in philosophy, psychology, and
education. His method of questions-the Socratic Method-is still used to foster
critical thinking. Basically, Socrates and the Sophists agreed that morality
was based on knowledge although they differed on the kind of knowledge that
mattered. For the Sophists, goodness was learned through routine and habit
rather than genuine reasoning and philosophy. Morality to them is more a skill
in the handling of personal and political affairs, rather subjective, since
benefits for some would damage others. A skilled person, in preserving wealth
might just as well know how to steal it. Socrates would have none of that,
instead, he accepted that knowledge was very important in realizing Good. A
good substance, when done without deep knowledge, would ultimately lead to
misfortune: for example, health, wealth, and courage are all good, but when not
properly understood, contribute to badness. The wise would utilize knowledge in
a careful way, while the foolish use it all in a misguided way that does more
harm than good. While the Sophists based their teachings and principles on
popular opinion and desires, Socrates, on the other hand, insisted that moral
insight could only have developed through reasoning and self-reflection. He
believed that truly knowing goodness came from a good deal of reflection and
meditation upon the idea of the Good.
So, Socrates explained that the virtue of the soul is really one itself,
yet presented in different forms, such as wisdom, temperance, courage, justice,
and holiness. He gave an example through an analogy in the way all cows bear a
common essence of "cowness", likewise, Socrates maintained, all
virtues refer to a single essence of goodness. Therefore, he divided the soul
into three:
·
Reason
(Wisdom), which guides it by conscious, logical thought.
·
Temper
(Courage), supporting the reason to act on its command.
·
Desires, the
temperance that provides incentives for doing, but has to be controlled.
A balanced soul, where reason leads, courage backs it up, and desires are kept in check, will experience inner peace and happiness. That basically lines up with modern psychology in the sense that needs (conation) sometimes drive human behavior, but those behaviors are tempered through cognition. Last of all, Socrates, like Plato, argued for a single most important ‘Idea of the Good’, that which provides the basis for all moral truth and beauty, and this rips through the very fabric of his conviction that moral reality is belief-worthy rather than subjective. Socrates’ influence on people during his time:
· This contribution of challenging
accepted convention: Socrates did challenge the old models of
thought and belief that existed at the time.
He forced the Athenians, through his now-famous Socratic method of
questioning, into some serious thinking about morality and virtue instead of
just accepting what everybody else was saying was true.
· Virtue comes from wisdom:
He explained how virtue is actually knowledge; for example, if one knew
something was good, he would automatically do it. Such a deviation jarred the
mind-set away from mindless behavior and toward self-examination and reasoning.
· Moral autonomy: In the realization that each person was capable of knowing and choosing for himself just what is good, Socrates laid emphasis on political freedom within the minds of the citizen. It is therefore no wonder that we are ever reminded by his statement that "not an examined life but worth living".
How is it related to Psychology and
today’s people?
· Self-Reflection:
The Socratic Method was a precursor to self-knowledge and introspection; these
are now seen as two of the most significant aspects of modern psychology. A
similar demand to question one's assumptions is made in CBT, whereby Socratic
questioning is introduced in the process of helping patients to dispute and
revise irrational assumptions.
· Cognitive processes:
Socrates connects human action to failing morality, a view that can be
considered a forebear of contemporary perspectives of deviance as a result of
misguided conception by a thought process. Socrates thought, though indirect,
made a connection between belief and action.
· Ethics and decision-making: By insisting that knowledge produces virtuous action, Socrates anticipated modern-day discussions about the intellectual basis of decision-making. His thought gives credence to the argument that enhancing one's cognitive abilities, through education and self-questioning, can lead to better decisions.
Philosophical
inquiry was refocused from external codes of conduct to internal self-awareness
and individual responsibility with Socrates' new vision of ethics and morality.
His legacy remains present in contemporary arguments on moral reasoning,
critical thinking, and ethical decisions-making. He was never about conclusive
answers; instead, his method urged on the question of ethics: dynamic and
evolving. The foundation of intellectual humility allowed him to engage deeply
and life-long with issues on virtue and justice, and in such ways that
influence philosophy, psychology, and ethics down to the present.
REFERENCES
Dipen Tayung, and Professor. “SOCRATIC CONCEPT of ETHICS and IT’S RELEVANCE in PRACTICAL LIFE.” JETIR, vol. 6, 2019, www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1908793.pdf.
King,
James. “The Unique Impact of Socrates and Its Surprising Importance.” JAMES
KING BLOG, 4 Feb. 2023, jamoroki.com/impact-of-socrates/.
Singer, Peter. “Ethics - Socrates.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy/Socrates
Influence on Later Thinkers and Schools of Thought
-By Bhanavi Buragohain (2434614)
Introduction
Socrates, the classical
Greek philosopher, greatly influenced his immediate disciples, Plato and
Aristotle, and pervaded the foundation upon which the subsequent theories of
psychology were built. Socrates was distinctive among philosophers mainly due
to his teaching methods. The man did not lecture; instead, he used dialogues
and discussions in order to challenge the belief systems of his students in all
fields of study and promote logical thought. With this method, he attempted to
instigate some self-reflection and induce a deeper belief about comprehending
the world. His use of inspiring questions, the Socratic method, pushed his
students to question their basic assumptions about thought and to try and
expand their knowledge further. He used to concentrate in ethics and his idea
was that knowledge is virtue, thus causing the later theories of moral psychology.
His insistence for self-knowledge, Know Thyself, became central to
introspection, which was one of the prominent methods within the scope of early
psychology.
Although the influence of
Socrates was widespread, this write-up focuses on the major philosophers and
their philosophies. His teachings’ direct influence was on Plato and Aristotle.
However, the other philosophers mentioned here were influenced if not directly.
Influence
on Plato
Plato, inspired by
Socrates, adopted a similar approach in his own teachings, encouraging students
to challenge assumptions, think independently, and seek knowledge through
dialogue and debate. Plato extended Socratic thought: behind the sensuous
reality, one posited the existence of abstract, perfect forms as the ultimate
reality. This idea had a profound influence on later nativist theories in
psychology, most importantly Chomsky's linguistic nativism, suggesting that
certain cognitive structures, particularly language, are built into the mind
rather than acquired through exposure.
The other insight - that
knowledge is recollection - became foundational for cognitive psychology. This
concept, discussed in Meno (Plato, trans. Grube, 1981), suggested that
learning is merely recalling what the soul already knows, a notion that
resonates with modern theories of implicit memory and unconscious cognition.
Socrates first explicitly
introduced the parts of the soul where they are identified and distinguished
through a complex argument revolving around the phenomenon of psychological
conflict. Influenced by this idea, Plato’s tripartite model of the soul (The
Republic, Book IV) divided the psyche into three parts:
Fig. A visual representation of Plato’s division of the soul
- Rational (Logos): He says that the rational element reasons about what is truly good for the soul. It exercises foresight and knows what is advantageous for each element and for the whole, which is the community of the parts
- Spirited (Thymos): He describes the
individual who is ruled by his spirited element as a lover of victory and
honour, proud, highly status oriented (he is submissive to rulers but
harsh to slaves), and a lover of physical training and hunting, with
strong abilities in war
- Appetitive (Eros): Plato said that,
though the appetitive element is manifold, yet it is one great desire for
food, drink, sex--and so since the easiest way to satisfy such desires is
through money, this has become the money-loving element.
The division influenced
Freud's id, ego, and superego in 1923 and provided the basis for later
psychological conceptualizations of personality (Brennan, 2002). It also
contributed to early discourses of dual-process models of cognition,
differentiating between rational and affective types of thought (Evans &
Stanovich, 2013).
Socrates' philosophical
stances impressively influenced the political philosophy of Plato. Socrates'
critical reflection on the political systems of ancient Athens strongly
impressed the thinking of the young Plato. Socrates believed about the
importance of turning against authority in trust of the benefits of truth was
always there, and thus that suffered a monumental effect on the latter's
considerations about the judicial and the consequent.
The political philosophy
of Plato represented the ideal Socratic emphasis on the nature of justice,
virtue, and the common good. A Plato would then put it, a state is assured of
justice when the ruler is guided by the essence of wisdom and virtue rather than
personal interests. The Philosopher king idea that Plato held was simply but a
vision coloured by Socratic discussions on the moralities endowed to those who
hold great power. Through the dialogues of Plato, which he painstakingly wrote,
most of what we know of the doctrines of Socrates derives. Thus, this Socratic
thought would make an indirect influence on Aristotle through Platonic
interpretations as a student of the Academy of Plato.
Influence
on Aristotle
In his Nicomachean
Ethics, Book VI, Aristotle presents a more detailed account of wisdom than
that of his predecessors. He employs a question-and-answer format to dissect
ethical concepts, a technique reminiscent of Socratic dialogues.
For Aristotle, areté and eudaimonia are
also correlated. Unlike Plato, Aristotle didn’t believe that all human beings
have the same capacity for virtue. He thought that only those who received a
good education, from childhood to early adulthood, could become virtuous one
day. However, this initial education could only raise decent people.
True virtue requires a special kind of practical knowledge and education. This
formulated in a concept called the Golden Mean, suggesting that virtue lies
between deficiency and excess. This nuanced understanding indicates an
evolution of Socratic ethical principles within Aristotelian thought.
Aristotle also thought
that the human mind is divided into three parts:
Fig. A chart comparing the vegetative, sensitive, and rational souls.
1. 1. A vegetative (or nutritive) soul is
possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the assimilation of food, and
reproduction.
2. 2. A sensitive soul is possessed by animals
but not plants. In addition to the vegetative functions, organisms that possess
a sensitive soul sense and respond to the environment, experience pleasure and
pain, and have a memory.
3. 3. A rational soul is possessed only by
humans. It provides all the functions of the other two souls but also allows
thinking or rational thought.
As presented in Plato's
dialogues, Socrates' political philosophy stresses, above all, the function of
the philosopher-king and the high value of justice within the state. While
Aristotle, in the "Politics," gives a more advanced grasp of these
ideas, developing his own exposition of several political structures in order
to advance his case for a constitutional government, he does emphasize the
necessity of the middle class if political stability is to be achieved, thereby
exemplifying a much more practical approach to Socratic principles with respect
to government and justice.
Aristotle was influenced,
rather solely, by Socratic ideas through the meditative confrontation of those
ideas placed by the philosophical writing of Plato: the influence of Socratic
reasoning and guidance pointed through the - Socratic method of investigation,
to moral examination of views in itself provided a basis for Aristotle to build
on his own empirical and systematic philosophy; on the very engagement with
Socratic ideas independence ways were developed that move in a variety of
directions in many a philosophy and other fields; thus-proving the enduring
impact of Socratic thought in shaping Western philosophy.
Influence on Other Schools
of Thought
Cynicism
Fig.
A symbolic representation of Cynic philosophy, featuring Diogenes rejecting
material wealth while an opulent banquet takes place in the background.
Cynicism is a school
of philosophy that emerged in ancient Greece in the 4th century BCE. It was
founded by Antisthenes, a student of Socrates, and was continued by Diogenes
of Sinope, one of its most famous practitioners. Cynics maintained that a
simple life was best, rejecting social conventions like materialism and the
pursuit of wealth or power. They believed that virtue is the highest good and
acted in accordance with it. They also intended to live according to reason and
rejected any strong values that might underlie mainstream culture.
While Socrates’s works
later became significant to many different branches of philosophy, the thinker
himself was mainly concerned with ethics and morality. He spoke of methods
for leading a successful life and therefore the meaning of goodness. To this
end, they followed the example of Socrates. His philosophical teachings
emphasized virtue as the highest good and the ultimate goal in life. Thus,
virtue in itself does equate to success in life. Although Socrates and the
Cynics had quite different opinions about how to achieve perseverance-the
former was a proponent of wisdom in all things while the latter believed in a
harmony with nature-both maintained that it was living in accordance with
reason which was the distinct mark of living well. While he simply
remained skeptical as a way to open conversation, Cynics rejected society’s
standards and conventions altogether, choosing to live outside the realm of
normality. Although they didn’t necessarily question the same things —
Socrates was fond of denying the gods, while Cynics preferred to challenge
norms — the Cynics took a page out of Socrates’s book to push back against
prevailing social values on their quest for virtue.
Part of Socrates’s philosophy focused
more on the immaterial aspects of life — such as virtue, justice, and wisdom —
than physical things. He was more concerned with living a good life than he was
with living a wealthy one, and he was largely indifferent to the material
world. This view heavily influenced Cynic philosophy, which rejects luxury and
comfort to focus instead of advocating for a simpler life. One of the founders
of Cynicism, Diogenes of Sinope, took it to the extreme and became known for
living in a large jar with only a few personal belongings. The Cynics took
their philosophical discussions to the street, though they were much more eager
to embrace their contentious reputation.
Stoicism
Fig.
A symbolic representation of Stoic philosophy, featuring a balanced scale of
reason and emotions, along with a Roman philosopher standing resilient amidst a
storm.
Socrates’s influence on
the Stoics was far greater – or at least the influence of ideas that Plato and
Xenophon, our two main sources, attributed to Socrates. Above all, many Stoics
saw Socrates as a perfected sage, an example for us to emulate; so naturally
they took over certain of his ideas.
First, Xenophon has
Socrates clearly lay out the argument from design – the argument that God must
exist because the universe is programmed, so there must be a programmer. The
Stoics took that over lock, stock, and barrel.
Second, they believed in
the so-called Socratic paradox, that virtue is knowledge, and they defined each
of the virtues as a kind of knowledge, so that courage, for instance, is
knowledge of what is and what isn’t truly fearful. And if virtue is something
that only a person of knowledge can have, then to have one virtue is to have
them all, which is also an idea Plato floated (in Protagoras). But
the really important aspect of the paradox for the Stoics was this: if virtue
is knowledge, then vice is ignorance. So, they agreed with Socrates that no one
does wrong deliberately. Everyone, even a serial killer, believes that what
he’s doing is in his best interests; it’s just that he’s mistaken, because he’s
destroying his soul. The only harm we can take is what we do to ourselves.
Third, Socrates spoke of
philosophy as care of the soul, and it turns out that caring for one’s soul is
being a virtuous person. The Stoics seized on that as well: they saw philosophy
as therapy and as a way to progress towards virtuous sage hood. Like Socrates
(especially Xenophon’s Socrates), they saw freedom as a product of personal
self-discipline.
Fourth, in Phaedo,
Plato’s brilliant reconstruction of Socrates’s last day on earth, he has
Socrates describe philosophy as preparing for death, and fear of death was one
of the primary feelings the Stoics (the Epicureans too) were concerned to
combat.
Fifth and finally, a more
entertaining point. A particular influence on Marcus Aurelius in his Meditations was
Socrates’s assertion, in Xenophon at any rate, that we don’t need knowledge of
physics and so on to make progress towards enlightenment, Marcus seized on that
with a sigh of relief because he knew that he wasn’t very good at those
abstruse subjects!
Skepticism
Fig.
A symbolic representation of Skepticism, featuring a philosopher at a
crossroads between "Truth" and "Doubt."
Socrates significantly
influenced skepticism in a philosophical tradition that questions whether
humans can ever attain absolute knowledge. He employed a method of questioning
and challenging assumptions, known as the Socratic Method, that fostered skepticism
and critical variety and which paved the way for later skeptical philosophers.
According to Socrates, he often claimed he knew nothing; this attitude led him
to question and examine everything rather than just blindly follow something (Plato,
Apology); this stance inspired many later thinkers that, for one to
attain wisdom, one must first recognize how little one knows (Bett, 2010).
One of the early schools
of skepticism, that is, Pyrrhonism, was founded by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270
BCE), who was directly inspired by Socratic questioning. Pyrrho taught that
since we never could have complete certitude about anything, one ought to suspend
judgment (epoché) and pursue that state of inner peace (ataraxia)
(Brennan,1999). This was basically just another variation of Socrates's way of
continual questioning about beliefs and ideas while refusing to hold any as
known or final. Later Sextus Empiricus (c. 160-210 CE) built upon this further,
showing how Socratic questioning could be driven to challenge a claim to
knowledge itself (Hankinson, 1995).
Socrates has also
influenced Academic Skepticism, which was the school of skepticism developed by
Plato's Academy and codified especially by Arcesilaus and Carneades. This
tradition took Socrates' notion of certain knowledge, true wisdom being to know
that one knows nothing, and argued that evidence and reasoning should always be
open to new possibilities of being. They would explicitly criticize dogmatism
in beliefs and persist in inquiry, similar to the methodology employed by
Socrates in his dialogues.
The influence of Socratic
skepticism on philosophy did not end with ancient times. In later centuries,
such Enlightenment philosophers as Descartes decided to begin his inquiry by
doubting everything in the search for certainty (Meditations on First Philosophy).
David Hume equally developed his skeptical reasoning to bring into question
human knowledge, especially that concerning cause and effect (An Enquiry
Concerning Human Understanding).
Socrates' methodology for
critical thinking, questioning assumptions, and avoiding dogmatic certainty is
the very foundation of skepticism. His influence and legacy continued into
modern philosophy and the sciences, where questioning and skepticism are just
the right tools needed in the search for truth (Popkin & Stroll, 2002).
Socratic Method in Psychotherapy
.webp)
Fig. Just as the scientific method is one of the most prominent tools associated with science, the
Socratic method is one of the foremost tools associated with critical thinking.
The Socratic method of question-and-answer dialogue has found a logic home in modern psychotherapy. Cognitive behavioural therapy offers one of the most popular of their variants, which consists of challenging and reframing thoughts and beliefs through the process of Socratic questioning.
In therapy, though, how
will Socratic questioning look? A patient says: “I’m a complete failure.” The
therapist may use the Socratic method and questions, such as:
“What proof do you have
for this belief?”
“Can you think of any
time you have succeeded at something?”
“What would you tell a
friend expressing this belief about themselves?”
This technique is softly
challenging of the beliefs the patient has, so as to shift to alternative
perspectives. It is a process of guided discovery, not where the therapist
provides the answers, but the client with insight into their own conclusions.
This approach has many
advantages, such as enabling the patients to become active agents in their own
healing process, instead of passive recipients of expert advice. It promotes
critical thinking and problem-solving skills that can be applied beyond the
therapy room. And perhaps most importantly, it fosters a deeper understanding
of oneself and one’s thought patterns.
There have been a few
case studies which confirm that the Socratic dialogue is applicable in therapy;
for example, CBT with Socratic questioning was shown to be effective in
treating depression and anxiety disorders in one study published in the Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Resultantly, patients reported not only
symptom reduction, but enhanced self-esteem and problem-solving skills.
Socrates had an ambiguous
view about emotions and their role in well-being. He recognized that emotions
possess great power, but that reason should be relied upon to direct our lives.
This does not involve now the suppression of feelings; rather, it constitutes
rational understanding and management of such. This view conforms greatly with
contemporary theories of emotional intelligence. While Socrates advocated an
examination of and rational analysis of one's emotions, so modern psychologists
espouse the need for awareness of emotions and their management.
For Socrates, eudaimonia
was the foundation of mental health. It evolves into something that can either
be called "happiness," or "flourishing." Whatever
translation one chooses, it is the state wherein one is doing well in life and
living well. Eudaimonia, in Socratic thought, obviously was not about feeling
good only in the moment, but rather the integrity and purpose of a life lived.
It bears great
psychological significance and implies that it is by not following pleasure or
avoiding pain that we attain our true well-being; rather it derives from the
authentic feeling of leading the kind of life that we have always aspired to
and unfolding our potential. Modern humanistic and existential strains of
psychology, which underscore the importance of self-actualization and finding
meaning, still resonate with this idea.
Interestingly,
contemporary studies in positive psychology have scientifically validated this
ancient wisdom. Research has shown that striving for eudaimonic well-being
generally results in improved mental and physical health as compared to those
individuals elevating mere hedonic pleasure.
Socratic Ideas and Its
Influence on Modern Psychology
Fig.
A conceptual illustration of Socrates' influence on CBT, seamlessly connecting
ancient philosophical dialogue with modern therapy.
Beyond therapy, Socratic
thought influences the larger canvas. Many schools of psychological theory and
practice have derived from it. Many ideas of contemporary psychology have their
roots in Plato's psychology, which he obtained greatly through Socrates.
The humanistic psychology
view on self-actualization and human development has very much come through the
Socratic principles with, among other things, the idea that self-discovery is
important and every person has intrinsic wisdom in it.
Fig.
An artistic representation of Socrates' influence on Humanistic Psychology,
visually connecting ancient philosophical inquiry to modern self-actualization
therapy.
Existential psychology as
the branch that engages in questions of meaning and purpose finds a big part of
its theorization in Socratic philosophy itself. The emphasis on introspection
and the quest for authenticity in existential therapy directly owes itself to
Socrates' command "Know thyself." It would probably be here that
Socratic influence is most clear in cognitive psychology, which emphasized
critical thought and logical analysis. Given its significant stress on
challenging assumptions and analyzing data, the Socratic method of teaching
looks a lot like the scientific process across which present-day psychological
research is built.
Again, Socratic ideas
have entered into self-awareness and mindfulness exercises. The importance
which mindfulness meditation, for example, places on introspection and
self-reflection owes a great deal to the Socratic charge to examine oneself.
Also, soma psychology, concerned with connecting the mind to the body, invokes
these ancient traditions of self-awareness and integral wellness.
Indeed, he is the
brightest comet on the horizon of inspiration for today's psychologists.
Self-awareness, critical thinking, and a moral life drove him at the heart of
his psychosomatic thought, and therefore he finds an inspiring echo among
modern mental health clinicians.
The Socratic method with
inquiry and dialogue remains today one powerful tool for therapeutic
intervention and personal growth. Eudaimonia provides a coherent vision of what
wellbeing entails – one that emphasizes not just happiness, but also fulfilment
and meaning. The appeal to "know thyself" still represents, today, a
very important piece of psychological wellbeing.
Fig.
An artistic representation of Eudaimonia, illustrating flourishing and
fulfilment in life with ancient Greek aesthetics.
The future, nonetheless,
in store might hold a greater ambit of integrating Socratic wisdom into
therapeutic practice and development. The fine arts of application of Socratic
wisdom could certainly prove their worth and their mastery in times ahead, as we
will continue navigating the complex modern landscape-from digital overwhelm to
existential crises.
The greatest lesson perhaps
from Socrates comes in learning to ask questions in life-and some of those
questions are in themselves: our hypothetical truths, our beliefs, and even
ourselves. Hence, in this information-overloaded changing world, this ability
to question and reflect will become more important than ever.
As we explore the
intersection of ancient wisdom and modern science, the idea that Socrates'
teachings could merely be relics of the past would appear to be dispelled. But
instead, they seem to appear as beacons leading one towards a more
psychologically sound future. Much like Aristotle's theories of psychology and
Rene Descartes' psychology, which manifested in the wake of him, Socrates'
insights continue to point their torch for the understanding of the human mind.
Conclusion
In the end, Socrates'
greatest contribution to psychology may very well be his notion that the quest
for wisdom and self-understanding is not merely an academic question, but one
that lies at the heart of living a good life. In modern life's immense complexities,
this wisdom, other than some added information for Socrates, might prepare him
for a proper course into the realms of mental well-being and personal growth.
The
contributions of Socrates to philosophy are ever present in the development of
psychological theories. Some of these theories contributed to the founding
ideas of ethics and the understanding of the psyche through the intermediary of
Plato and Aristotle. Additionally, this perseverance of the Socratic traditions
is the reason why existential psychology and therapeutic effort integrate those
principles; Socrates' statements are therefore still relevant in any discussion
of modern relevance interspersed with questions about meaning and
self-awareness in mental health.
References
The
Tripartite Theory of Motivation in Plato’s Republic.
PhilArchive. https://philarchive.org/archive/SINTTT
What
were the key aspects of Socrates' influence on Plato.
Plato Intelligence. https://platointelligence.com/what-were-the-key-aspects-of-socrates-influence-on-plato/
What
did Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle think about wisdom.
Wisdom Center, University of Chicago. https://wisdomcenter.uchicago.edu/news/wisdom-news/what-did-socrates-plato-and-aristotle-think-about-wisdom
How
did Socrates's teaching inspire Cynicism. The Collector. https://www.thecollector.com/how-did-socratess-teaching-inspire-cynicism/
Plato
and Stoicism. The Montreal Review. https://www.themontrealreview.com/Articles/Plato_and_Stoicism.php
Socrates'
psychology. Neurolaunch. https://neurolaunch.com/socrates-psychology/
Criticisms
and Limitations
-By Iravati Bose (2434624)
Socrates' philosophical
teachings offer valuable insights yet face numerous critiques and inherent
limitations. The initial obstacle involves deciphering the ways in which
ancient philosophical systems might be relevant to contemporary existence.
Ancient philosophies often fail to provide adequate solutions for the intricate
problems and unique societal structures that characterize modern life.
The practice of
self-examination encounters major constraints when performed excessively.
Introspection typically provides advantages but it may cause individuals to
engage in excessive thinking and rumination. Contemporary psychological
approaches advocate for a harmonious integration of self-reflection with
proactive behavior while maintaining outward attentiveness.
Socrates' philosophical
concepts developed within a distinct cultural milieu and their applicability
across diverse cultures remains questionable. His focus on personal
introspection stands in potential conflict with the collectivistic principles
prevalent in certain cultural contexts.
Socratic wisdom presents
foundational ideas yet requires augmentation through empirical psychological
research. The focus of contemporary psychology on empirical methods and
evidence-based studies finds compatibility with these ancient philosophical
viewpoints.
Conclusion
Despite the limitations
highlighted above, Socrates' views continue to have an unquestionable
importance in contemporary psychology. His emphasis on self-awareness, critical
thinking, and ethical behaviour continue to impact contemporary psychological
techniques. Perhaps the most important lesson from Socrates is to challenge our
assumptions, beliefs, and ourselves. In a world of rapid and simultaneous
change, critical thinking and self-awareness are more important than ever.
Socrates' most important
legacy is his contribution to the technique of discourse, known as Socratic
inquiry. Instead of the teacher lecturing the learner, both are accountable for
advancing the conversation and gaining knowledge. In psychology, this strategy
is extensively utilised in therapy and evaluation, with the purpose of
assisting in the discovery of assumptions and evidence that underpin an
individual's problems. This finally helps individuals gain better insight and
reframe their understanding of what is troubling them.
His emphasis on the
relationship between virtue and knowledge had a significant impact on ethical
thought. He claimed that moral education and the cultivation of intellectual
virtues are critical to ethical behaviour. Socrates' ideas also make us think about
the role of ignorance in moral transgression and the power of knowledge to
modify character and behaviour.
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